Systems and methods for maintaining occupant comfort for various environmental conditions

ABSTRACT

An environmental control system of a building including a first building device operable to affect environmental conditions of a zone of the building by providing a first input to the zone. The system includes a second building device operable to independently affect a subset of the environmental conditions by providing a second input to the zone and further includes a controller including a processing circuit. The processing circuit is configured to perform an optimization to generate control decisions for the building devices. The optimization is performed subject to constraints for the environmental conditions and uses a predictive model that predicts an effect of the control decisions on the environmental conditions. The processing circuit is configured to operate the building devices in accordance with the control decisions.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/703,514 filed Dec. 4, 2019, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates generally to a building system in a building. The present disclosure relates more particularly to maintaining occupant comfort in a building through environmental control.

Maintaining occupant comfort in a building requires building equipment (e.g., HVAC equipment) to be operated to change environmental conditions in the building. In some systems, occupants are required to make any desired changes to the environmental conditions themselves if they are not comfortable. When operating building equipment to change specific environmental conditions, other environmental conditions may be affected as a result. Maintaining occupant comfort can be expensive if not performed correctly. Thus, systems and methods are needed to maintain occupant comfort for multiple environmental conditions while reducing expenses related to maintaining occupant comfort.

SUMMARY

One implementation of the present disclosure is an environmental control system of a building, according to some embodiments. The system includes a first building device operable to affect environmental conditions of a zone of the building by providing a first input to the zone, according to some embodiments. The system includes a second building device operable to independently affect a subset of the environmental conditions by providing a second input to the zone, according to some embodiments. The system includes a controller including a processing circuit, according to some embodiments. The processing circuit is configured to perform an optimization to generate control decisions for the first building device and the second building device, according to some embodiments. The optimization is performed subject to environmental condition constraints for the environmental conditions and using a predictive model that predicts an effect of the control decisions on the environmental conditions, according to some embodiments. The processing circuit is configured to operate the first building device and the second building device in accordance with the control decisions to affect the environmental conditions of the zone, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the environmental conditions include at least one of a temperature, a humidity, a particular matter concentration, or a carbon dioxide concentration.

In some embodiments, the environmental condition constraints for the environmental conditions include at least one of an upper bound or a lower bound that indicate a maximum allowable value and a minimum allowable value of an associated environmental condition.

In some embodiments, the first building device is a ventilator operable to affect the environmental conditions by providing an airflow to the zone of the building. The airflow contains a portion of outdoor air, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the predictive model is a zone model for the zone. The zone model defines a first relationship between a first environmental condition of the environmental conditions and the first input provided to the zone by the first building device, according to some embodiments. The zone model defines a second relationship between a second environmental condition of the environmental conditions, the first input provided to the zone by the first building device, and the second input provided to the zone by the second building device, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the optimization is performed based on asset models describing the first building device and the second building device. Each of the assets models indicate inputs and outputs of the first building device or the second building device, according to some embodiments. The optimization is performed further based on a forecast of outdoor conditions that indicates environmental conditions of an external space, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, operating the first building device affects the environmental conditions. Operating the second building device affects the subset of the environmental conditions, according to some embodiments. Performing the optimization coordinates operation of the first building device and the second building device such that the environmental conditions are maintained at setpoints or within predetermined ranges, according to some embodiments.

Another implementation of the present disclosure is a method for maintaining occupant comfort in a zone of a building, according to some embodiments. The method includes receiving, at a cloud computing system via a communications network, measurements of environmental conditions within the zone, according to some embodiments. The method includes performing an optimization at the cloud computing system to generate control decisions for a first building device operable to affect the environmental conditions by providing a first input to the zone and a second building device operable to independently affect a subset of the environmental conditions by providing a second input to the zone, according to some embodiments. The optimization is performed subject to environmental condition constraints for the environmental conditions and using a predictive model that predicts an effect of the control decisions on the environmental conditions, according to some embodiments. The method includes providing the control decisions for the first building device and the second building device from the cloud computing system to a local control device within the building via the communications network, according to some embodiments. The local control device uses the control decisions to operate the first building device and the second building device to affect the environmental conditions of the zone, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the optimization is performed based on asset models describing the first building device and the second building device. Each of the asset models indicate inputs and outputs of the first building device or the second building device, according to some embodiments. The optimization is performed further based on a forecast of outdoor conditions that indicates environmental conditions of an external space, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the first building device is a ventilator operable to affect the environmental conditions by providing an airflow to the zone of the building. The airflow includes a portion of outdoor air, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the predictive model is a zone model for the zone. The zone model defines a first relationship between a first environmental condition of the environmental conditions and the first input provided to the zone by the first building device, according to some embodiments. The zone model defines a second relationship between a second environmental condition of the environmental conditions, the first input provided to the zone by the first building device, and the second input provided to the zone by the second building device, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the environmental conditions include at least one of a temperature, a humidity, a particular matter concentration, or a carbon dioxide concentration.

In some embodiments, the environmental condition constraints for the environmental conditions include at least one of an upper bound or a lower bound that indicate a maximum allowable value and a minimum allowable value of an associated environmental condition.

In some embodiments, the local control device is a thermostat configured to measure the environmental conditions in the zone.

Another implementation of the present disclosure is a controller for maintaining occupant comfort in a zone of a building, according to some embodiments. The controller includes one or more processors, according to some embodiments. The controller includes one or more non-transitory computer-readable media storing instructions that, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform operations, according to some embodiments. The operations include performing an optimization to generate control decisions for a ventilator operable to affect environmental conditions of the zone by providing a first input to the zone and a second building device operable to independently affect a subset of the environmental conditions by providing a second input to the zone, according to some embodiments. The optimization is performed subject to environmental condition constraints for the environmental conditions and using a predictive model that predicts an effect of the control decisions on the environmental conditions, according to some embodiments. The operations include operating the ventilator and the second building device in accordance with the control decisions to affect the environmental conditions of the zone, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the environmental conditions include at least one of a temperature, a humidity, a particulate matter concentration, or a carbon dioxide concentration.

In some embodiments, the ventilator is operable to affect the environmental conditions by providing an airflow to the zone of the building. The airflow contains a portion of outdoor air, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the predictive model is a zone model for the zone. The zone model defines a first relationship between a first environmental condition of the environmental conditions and the first input provided to the zone by the ventilator, according to some embodiments. The zone model defines a second relationship between a second environmental condition of the environmental conditions, the first input provided to the zone by the ventilator, and the second input provided to the zone by the second building device, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the optimization is performed based on asset models describing the ventilator and the second building device. Each of the asset models indicate inputs and outputs of the ventilator or the second building device, according to some embodiments. The optimization is performed further based on a forecast of outdoor conditions that indicates environmental conditions of an external space, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, operating the ventilator affects the environmental conditions. Operating the second building device affects the subset of the environmental conditions, according to some embodiments. Performing the optimization coordinates operation of the ventilator and the second building device such that the environmental conditions are maintained at setpoints or within predetermined ranges, according to some embodiments.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be in any way limiting. Other aspects, inventive features, and advantages of the devices and/or processes described herein, as defined solely by the claims, will become apparent in the detailed description set forth herein and taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a drawing of a building equipped with a HVAC system, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a central plant which can be used to serve the energy loads of the building of FIG. 1, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of an airside system which can be implemented in the building of FIG. 1, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an asset allocation system including sources, subplants, storage, sinks, and an asset allocator configured to optimize the allocation of these assets, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 5A is a plant resource diagram illustrating the elements of a central plant and the connections between such elements, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 5B is another plant resource diagram illustrating the elements of a central plant and the connections between such elements, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a central plant controller in which the asset allocator of FIG. 4 can be implemented, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a planning tool in which the asset allocator of FIG. 4 can be implemented, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 8 is a flow diagram illustrating an optimization process which can be performed by the planning tool of FIG. 7, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 9 is a block diagram illustrating the asset allocator of FIG. 4 in greater detail, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 10 is a graph of a progressive rate structure which can be imposed by some utilities, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 11 is a graph of an operational domain for a storage device of a central plant, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating the operational domain module of FIG. 9 in greater detail, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 13 is a graph of a subplant curve for a chiller subplant illustrating a relationship between chilled water production and electricity use, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 14 is a flowchart of a process for generating optimization constraints based on samples of data points associated with an operational domain of a subplant, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 15A is a graph illustrating a result of sampling the operational domain defined by the subplant curve of FIG. 13, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 15B is a graph illustrating a result of applying a convex hull algorithm to the sampled data points shown in FIG. 15A, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 16 is a graph of an operational domain for a chiller subplant which can be generated based on the sampled data points shown in FIG. 15A, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 17A is a graph illustrating a technique for identifying intervals of an operational domain for a subplant, which can be performed by the operational domain module of FIG. 12, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 17B is another graph illustrating the technique for identifying intervals of an operational domain for a subplant, which can be performed by the operational domain module of FIG. 12, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 18A is a graph of an operational domain for a chiller subplant with a portion that extends beyond the operational range of the subplant, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 18B is a graph of the operational domain shown in FIG. 18A after the operational domain has been sliced to remove the portion that extends beyond the operational range, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 19A is a graph of an operational domain for a chiller subplant with a middle portion that lies between two disjoined operational ranges of the subplant, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 19B is a graph of the operational domain shown in FIG. 19A after the operational domain has been split to remove the portion that lies between the two disjoined operational ranges, according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 20A-20D are graphs illustrating a technique which can be used by the operational domain module of FIG. 12 to detect and remove redundant constraints, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 21A is a graph of a three-dimensional operational domain with a cross-section defined by a fixed parameter, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 21B is a graph of a two-dimensional operational domain which can be generated based on the cross-section shown in the graph of FIG. 21A, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 22 is a block diagram of an environmental control system including a comfort controller, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 23 is a block diagram of the comfort controller of FIG. 22 in greater detail, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 24 is a block diagram of the asset allocator of FIG. 9 in greater detail, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 25 is a block diagram of a resource diagram affecting various environmental conditions in a zone group, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 26 is a block diagram of a resource diagram affecting various environmental conditions in a zone group, according to some embodiments

FIG. 27A is a graph of a three-dimensional bilinear mapping that can be used by a mixed integer linear program to determine environmental condition constraints, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 27B is a graph of the three-dimensional bilinear mapping of FIG. 21A in courser detail, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 28 is a graph of a psychometric chart illustrating a comfort zone based on humidity and temperature, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 29 is a flow diagram of a process for operating building equipment to maintain occupant comfort in a zone for multiple environmental conditions, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 30 is a block diagram of an environmental control system with a cloud computing system, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 31 is a block diagram of an environmental control system that includes a smart thermostat for generating control schedules, according to some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Overview

Referring generally to the FIGURES, systems and methods for maintaining occupant comfort for various environmental conditions is shown, according to various exemplary embodiments. To maintain occupant comfort, a central plant with an asset allocator and components can be utilized. The asset allocator can be configured to manage energy assets such as central plant equipment, battery storage, and other types of equipment configured to serve the energy loads of a building. The asset allocator can determine an optimal distribution of heating, cooling, electricity, and energy loads across different subplants (i.e., equipment groups) of the central plant capable of producing that type of energy.

In some embodiments, the asset allocator is configured to control the distribution, production, storage, and usage of resources in the central plant. The asset allocator can be configured to minimize the economic cost (or maximize the economic value) of operating the central plant over a duration of an optimization period. The economic cost may be defined by a cost function J(x) that expresses economic cost as a function of the control decisions made by the asset allocator. The cost function J(x) may account for the cost of resources purchased from various sources, as well as the revenue generated by selling resources (e.g., to an energy grid) or participating in incentive programs.

The asset allocator can be configured to define various sources, subplants, storage, and sinks. These four categories of objects define the assets of a central plant and their interaction with the outside world. Sources may include commodity markets or other suppliers from which resources such as electricity, water, natural gas, and other resources can be purchased or obtained. Sinks may include the requested loads of a building or campus as well as other types of resource consumers. Subplants are the main assets of a central plant. Subplants can be configured to convert resource types, making it possible to balance requested loads from a building or campus using resources purchased from the sources. Storage can be configured to store energy or other types of resources for later use.

In some embodiments, the asset allocator performs an optimization process determine an optimal set of control decisions for each time step within the optimization period. The control decisions may include, for example, an optimal amount of each resource to purchase from the sources, an optimal amount of each resource to produce or convert using the subplants, an optimal amount of each resource to store or remove from storage, an optimal amount of each resource to sell to resources purchasers, and/or an optimal amount of each resource to provide to other sinks. In some embodiments, the asset allocator is configured to optimally dispatch all campus energy assets (i.e., the central plant equipment) in order to meet the requested heating, cooling, and electrical loads of the campus for each time step within the optimization period.

In some embodiments, the asset allocator considers multiple environmental conditions when determining the optimal set of control decisions for each time step within the optimization period. To properly manage each environmental condition, various building equipment may be able to adjust one or more of the environmental conditions. As such, the asset allocator may need to account for how each device affects various environmental conditions in order to maintain occupant comfort and reduce costs. These and other features of the asset allocator are described in greater detail below.

Building and HVAC System

Referring now to FIG. 1, a perspective view of a building 10 is shown. Building 10 can be served by a building management system (BMS). A BMS is, in general, a system of devices configured to control, monitor, and manage equipment in or around a building or building area. A BMS can include, for example, a HVAC system, a security system, a lighting system, a fire alerting system, any other system that is capable of managing building functions or devices, or any combination thereof. An example of a BMS which can be used to monitor and control building 10 is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/717,593 filed May 20, 2015, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

The BMS that serves building 10 may include a HVAC system 100. HVAC system 100 can include a plurality of HVAC devices (e.g., heaters, chillers, air handling units, pumps, fans, thermal energy storage, etc.) configured to provide heating, cooling, ventilation, or other services for building 10. For example, HVAC system 100 is shown to include a waterside system 120 and an airside system 130. Waterside system 120 may provide a heated or chilled fluid to an air handling unit of airside system 130. Airside system 130 may use the heated or chilled fluid to heat or cool an airflow provided to building 10. In some embodiments, waterside system 120 can be replaced with or supplemented by a central plant or central energy facility (described in greater detail with reference to FIG. 2). An example of an airside system which can be used in HVAC system 100 is described in greater detail with reference to FIG. 3.

HVAC system 100 is shown to include a chiller 102, a boiler 104, and a rooftop air handling unit (AHU) 106. Waterside system 120 may use boiler 104 and chiller 102 to heat or cool a working fluid (e.g., water, glycol, etc.) and may circulate the working fluid to AHU 106. In various embodiments, the HVAC devices of waterside system 120 can be located in or around building 10 (as shown in FIG. 1) or at an offsite location such as a central plant (e.g., a chiller plant, a steam plant, a heat plant, etc.). The working fluid can be heated in boiler 104 or cooled in chiller 102, depending on whether heating or cooling is required in building 10. Boiler 104 may add heat to the circulated fluid, for example, by burning a combustible material (e.g., natural gas) or using an electric heating element. Chiller 102 may place the circulated fluid in a heat exchange relationship with another fluid (e.g., a refrigerant) in a heat exchanger (e.g., an evaporator) to absorb heat from the circulated fluid. The working fluid from chiller 102 and/or boiler 104 can be transported to AHU 106 via piping 108.

AHU 106 may place the working fluid in a heat exchange relationship with an airflow passing through AHU 106 (e.g., via one or more stages of cooling coils and/or heating coils). The airflow can be, for example, outside air, return air from within building 10, or a combination of both. AHU 106 may transfer heat between the airflow and the working fluid to provide heating or cooling for the airflow. For example, AHU 106 can include one or more fans or blowers configured to pass the airflow over or through a heat exchanger containing the working fluid. The working fluid may then return to chiller 102 or boiler 104 via piping 110.

Airside system 130 may deliver the airflow supplied by AHU 106 (i.e., the supply airflow) to building 10 via air supply ducts 112 and may provide return air from building 10 to AHU 106 via air return ducts 114. In some embodiments, airside system 130 includes multiple variable air volume (VAV) units 116. For example, airside system 130 is shown to include a separate VAV unit 116 on each floor or zone of building 10. VAV units 116 can include dampers or other flow control elements that can be operated to control an amount of the supply airflow provided to individual zones of building 10. In other embodiments, airside system 130 delivers the supply airflow into one or more zones of building 10 (e.g., via supply ducts 112) without using intermediate VAV units 116 or other flow control elements. AHU 106 can include various sensors (e.g., temperature sensors, pressure sensors, etc.) configured to measure attributes of the supply airflow. AHU 106 may receive input from sensors located within AHU 106 and/or within the building zone and may adjust the flow rate, temperature, or other attributes of the supply airflow through AHU 106 to achieve setpoint conditions for the building zone.

Central Plant

Referring now to FIG. 2, a block diagram of a central plant 200 is shown, according to some embodiments. In various embodiments, central plant 200 can supplement or replace waterside system 120 in HVAC system 100 or can be implemented separate from HVAC system 100. When implemented in HVAC system 100, central plant 200 can include a subset of the HVAC devices in HVAC system 100 (e.g., boiler 104, chiller 102, pumps, valves, etc.) and may operate to supply a heated or chilled fluid to AHU 106. The HVAC devices of central plant 200 can be located within building 10 (e.g., as components of waterside system 120) or at an offsite location such as a central energy facility that serves multiple buildings.

Central plant 200 is shown to include a plurality of subplants 202-208. Subplants 202-208 can be configured to convert energy or resource types (e.g., water, natural gas, electricity, etc.). For example, subplants 202-208 are shown to include a heater subplant 202, a heat recovery chiller subplant 204, a chiller subplant 206, and a cooling tower subplant 208. In some embodiments, subplants 202-208 consume resources purchased from utilities to serve the energy loads (e.g., hot water, cold water, electricity, etc.) of a building or campus. For example, heater subplant 202 can be configured to heat water in a hot water loop 214 that circulates the hot water between heater subplant 202 and building 10. Similarly, chiller subplant 206 can be configured to chill water in a cold water loop 216 that circulates the cold water between chiller subplant 206 building 10.

Heat recovery chiller subplant 204 can be configured to transfer heat from cold water loop 216 to hot water loop 214 to provide additional heating for the hot water and additional cooling for the cold water. Condenser water loop 218 may absorb heat from the cold water in chiller subplant 206 and reject the absorbed heat in cooling tower subplant 208 or transfer the absorbed heat to hot water loop 214. In various embodiments, central plant 200 can include an electricity subplant (e.g., one or more electric generators) configured to generate electricity or any other type of subplant configured to convert energy or resource types.

Hot water loop 214 and cold water loop 216 may deliver the heated and/or chilled water to air handlers located on the rooftop of building 10 (e.g., AHU 106) or to individual floors or zones of building 10 (e.g., VAV units 116). The air handlers push air past heat exchangers (e.g., heating coils or cooling coils) through which the water flows to provide heating or cooling for the air. The heated or cooled air can be delivered to individual zones of building 10 to serve thermal energy loads of building 10. The water then returns to subplants 202-208 to receive further heating or cooling.

Although subplants 202-208 are shown and described as heating and cooling water for circulation to a building, it is understood that any other type of working fluid (e.g., glycol, CO₂, etc.) can be used in place of or in addition to water to serve thermal energy loads. In other embodiments, subplants 202-208 may provide heating and/or cooling directly to the building or campus without requiring an intermediate heat transfer fluid. These and other variations to central plant 200 are within the teachings of the present disclosure.

Each of subplants 202-208 can include a variety of equipment configured to facilitate the functions of the subplant. For example, heater subplant 202 is shown to include a plurality of heating elements 220 (e.g., boilers, electric heaters, etc.) configured to add heat to the hot water in hot water loop 214. Heater subplant 202 is also shown to include several pumps 222 and 224 configured to circulate the hot water in hot water loop 214 and to control the flow rate of the hot water through individual heating elements 220. Chiller subplant 206 is shown to include a plurality of chillers 232 configured to remove heat from the cold water in cold water loop 216. Chiller subplant 206 is also shown to include several pumps 234 and 236 configured to circulate the cold water in cold water loop 216 and to control the flow rate of the cold water through individual chillers 232.

Heat recovery chiller subplant 204 is shown to include a plurality of heat recovery heat exchangers 226 (e.g., refrigeration circuits) configured to transfer heat from cold water loop 216 to hot water loop 214. Heat recovery chiller subplant 204 is also shown to include several pumps 228 and 230 configured to circulate the hot water and/or cold water through heat recovery heat exchangers 226 and to control the flow rate of the water through individual heat recovery heat exchangers 226. Cooling tower subplant 208 is shown to include a plurality of cooling towers 238 configured to remove heat from the condenser water in condenser water loop 218. Cooling tower subplant 208 is also shown to include several pumps 240 configured to circulate the condenser water in condenser water loop 218 and to control the flow rate of the condenser water through individual cooling towers 238.

In some embodiments, one or more of the pumps in central plant 200 (e.g., pumps 222, 224, 228, 230, 234, 236, and/or 240) or pipelines in central plant 200 include an isolation valve associated therewith. Isolation valves can be integrated with the pumps or positioned upstream or downstream of the pumps to control the fluid flows in central plant 200. In various embodiments, central plant 200 can include more, fewer, or different types of devices and/or subplants based on the particular configuration of central plant 200 and the types of loads served by central plant 200.

Still referring to FIG. 2, central plant 200 is shown to include hot thermal energy storage (TES) 210 and cold thermal energy storage (TES) 212. Hot TES 210 and cold TES 212 can be configured to store hot and cold thermal energy for subsequent use. For example, hot TES 210 can include one or more hot water storage tanks 242 configured to store the hot water generated by heater subplant 202 or heat recovery chiller subplant 204. Hot TES 210 may also include one or more pumps or valves configured to control the flow rate of the hot water into or out of hot TES tank 242.

Similarly, cold TES 212 can include one or more cold water storage tanks 244 configured to store the cold water generated by chiller subplant 206 or heat recovery chiller subplant 204. Cold TES 212 may also include one or more pumps or valves configured to control the flow rate of the cold water into or out of cold TES tanks 244. In some embodiments, central plant 200 includes electrical energy storage (e.g., one or more batteries) or any other type of device configured to store resources. The stored resources can be purchased from utilities, generated by central plant 200, or otherwise obtained from any source.

Airside System

Referring now to FIG. 3, a block diagram of an airside system 300 is shown, according to some embodiments. In various embodiments, airside system 300 may supplement or replace airside system 130 in HVAC system 100 or can be implemented separate from HVAC system 100. When implemented in HVAC system 100, airside system 300 can include a subset of the HVAC devices in HVAC system 100 (e.g., AHU 106, VAV units 116, ducts 112-114, fans, dampers, etc.) and can be located in or around building 10. Airside system 300 may operate to heat or cool an airflow provided to building 10 using a heated or chilled fluid provided by central plant 200.

Airside system 300 is shown to include an economizer-type air handling unit (AHU) 302. Economizer-type AHUs vary the amount of outside air and return air used by the air handling unit for heating or cooling. For example, AHU 302 may receive return air 304 from building zone 306 via return air duct 308 and may deliver supply air 310 to building zone 306 via supply air duct 312. In some embodiments, AHU 302 is a rooftop unit located on the roof of building 10 (e.g., AHU 106 as shown in FIG. 1) or otherwise positioned to receive both return air 304 and outside air 314. AHU 302 can be configured to operate exhaust air damper 316, mixing damper 318, and outside air damper 320 to control an amount of outside air 314 and return air 304 that combine to form supply air 310. Any return air 304 that does not pass through mixing damper 318 can be exhausted from AHU 302 through exhaust damper 316 as exhaust air 322.

Each of dampers 316-320 can be operated by an actuator. For example, exhaust air damper 316 can be operated by actuator 324, mixing damper 318 can be operated by actuator 326, and outside air damper 320 can be operated by actuator 328. Actuators 324-328 may communicate with an AHU controller 330 via a communications link 332. Actuators 324-328 may receive control signals from AHU controller 330 and may provide feedback signals to AHU controller 330. Feedback signals can include, for example, an indication of a current actuator or damper position, an amount of torque or force exerted by the actuator, diagnostic information (e.g., results of diagnostic tests performed by actuators 324-328), status information, commissioning information, configuration settings, calibration data, and/or other types of information or data that can be collected, stored, or used by actuators 324-328. AHU controller 330 can be an economizer controller configured to use one or more control algorithms (e.g., state-based algorithms, extremum seeking control (ESC) algorithms, proportional-integral (PI) control algorithms, proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control algorithms, model predictive control (MPC) algorithms, feedback control algorithms, etc.) to control actuators 324-328.

Still referring to FIG. 3, AHU 302 is shown to include a cooling coil 334, a heating coil 336, and a fan 338 positioned within supply air duct 312. Fan 338 can be configured to force supply air 310 through cooling coil 334 and/or heating coil 336 and provide supply air 310 to building zone 306. AHU controller 330 may communicate with fan 338 via communications link 340 to control a flow rate of supply air 310. In some embodiments, AHU controller 330 controls an amount of heating or cooling applied to supply air 310 by modulating a speed of fan 338.

Cooling coil 334 may receive a chilled fluid from central plant 200 (e.g., from cold water loop 216) via piping 342 and may return the chilled fluid to central plant 200 via piping 344. Valve 346 can be positioned along piping 342 or piping 344 to control a flow rate of the chilled fluid through cooling coil 334. In some embodiments, cooling coil 334 includes multiple stages of cooling coils that can be independently activated and deactivated (e.g., by AHU controller 330, by BMS controller 366, etc.) to modulate an amount of cooling applied to supply air 310.

Heating coil 336 may receive a heated fluid from central plant 200 (e.g., from hot water loop 214) via piping 348 and may return the heated fluid to central plant 200 via piping 350. Valve 352 can be positioned along piping 348 or piping 350 to control a flow rate of the heated fluid through heating coil 336. In some embodiments, heating coil 336 includes multiple stages of heating coils that can be independently activated and deactivated (e.g., by AHU controller 330, by BMS controller 366, etc.) to modulate an amount of heating applied to supply air 310.

Each of valves 346 and 352 can be controlled by an actuator. For example, valve 346 can be controlled by actuator 354 and valve 352 can be controlled by actuator 356. Actuators 354-356 may communicate with AHU controller 330 via communications links 358-360. Actuators 354-356 may receive control signals from AHU controller 330 and may provide feedback signals to controller 330. In some embodiments, AHU controller 330 receives a measurement of the supply air temperature from a temperature sensor 362 positioned in supply air duct 312 (e.g., downstream of cooling coil 334 and/or heating coil 336). AHU controller 330 may also receive a measurement of the temperature of building zone 306 from a temperature sensor 364 located in building zone 306.

In some embodiments, AHU controller 330 operates valves 346 and 352 via actuators 354-356 to modulate an amount of heating or cooling provided to supply air 310 (e.g., to achieve a setpoint temperature for supply air 310 or to maintain the temperature of supply air 310 within a setpoint temperature range). The positions of valves 346 and 352 affect the amount of heating or cooling provided to supply air 310 by cooling coil 334 or heating coil 336 and may correlate with the amount of energy consumed to achieve a desired supply air temperature. AHU 330 may control the temperature of supply air 310 and/or building zone 306 by activating or deactivating coils 334-336, adjusting a speed of fan 338, or a combination of both.

Still referring to FIG. 3, airside system 300 is shown to include a building management system (BMS) controller 366 and a client device 368. BMS controller 366 can include one or more computer systems (e.g., servers, supervisory controllers, subsystem controllers, etc.) that serve as system level controllers, application or data servers, head nodes, or master controllers for airside system 300, central plant 200, HVAC system 100, and/or other controllable systems that serve building 10. BMS controller 366 may communicate with multiple downstream building systems or subsystems (e.g., HVAC system 100, a security system, a lighting system, central plant 200, etc.) via a communications link 370 according to like or disparate protocols (e.g., LON, BACnet, etc.). In various embodiments, AHU controller 330 and BMS controller 366 can be separate (as shown in FIG. 3) or integrated. In an integrated implementation, AHU controller 330 can be a software module configured for execution by a processor of BMS controller 366.

In some embodiments, AHU controller 330 receives information from BMS controller 366 (e.g., commands, setpoints, operating boundaries, etc.) and provides information to BMS controller 366 (e.g., temperature measurements, valve or actuator positions, operating statuses, diagnostics, etc.). For example, AHU controller 330 may provide BMS controller 366 with temperature measurements from temperature sensors 362-364, equipment on/off states, equipment operating capacities, and/or any other information that can be used by BMS controller 366 to monitor or control a variable state or condition within building zone 306.

Client device 368 can include one or more human-machine interfaces or client interfaces (e.g., graphical user interfaces, reporting interfaces, text-based computer interfaces, client-facing web services, web servers that provide pages to web clients, etc.) for controlling, viewing, or otherwise interacting with HVAC system 100, its subsystems, and/or devices. Client device 368 can be a computer workstation, a client terminal, a remote or local interface, or any other type of user interface device. Client device 368 can be a stationary terminal or a mobile device. For example, client device 368 can be a desktop computer, a computer server with a user interface, a laptop computer, a tablet, a smartphone, a PDA, or any other type of mobile or non-mobile device. Client device 368 may communicate with BMS controller 366 and/or AHU controller 330 via communications link 372.

Asset Allocation System

Referring now to FIG. 4, a block diagram of an asset allocation system 400 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Asset allocation system 400 can be configured to manage energy assets such as central plant equipment, battery storage, and other types of equipment configured to serve the energy loads of a building. Asset allocation system 400 can determine an optimal distribution of heating, cooling, electricity, and energy loads across different subplants (i.e., equipment groups) capable of producing that type of energy. In some embodiments, asset allocation system 400 is implemented as a component of central plant 200 and interacts with the equipment of central plant 200 in an online operational environment (e.g., performing real-time control of the central plant equipment). In other embodiments, asset allocation system 400 can be implemented as a component of a planning tool (described with reference to FIGS. 7-8) and can be configured to simulate the operation of a central plant over a predetermined time period for planning, budgeting, and/or design considerations.

Asset allocation system 400 is shown to include sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and sinks 440. These four categories of objects define the assets of a central plant and their interaction with the outside world. Sources 410 may include commodity markets or other suppliers from which resources such as electricity, water, natural gas, and other resources can be purchased or obtained. Sources 410 may provide resources that can be used by asset allocation system 400 to satisfy the demand of a building or campus. For example, sources 410 are shown to include an electric utility 411, a water utility 412, a natural gas utility 413, a photovoltaic (PV) field (e.g., a collection of solar panels), an energy market 415, and source M 416, where M is the total number of sources 410. Resources purchased from sources 410 can be used by subplants 420 to produce generated resources (e.g., hot water, cold water, electricity, steam, etc.), stored in storage 430 for later use, or provided directly to sinks 440.

Subplants 420 are the main assets of a central plant. Subplants 420 are shown to include a heater subplant 421, a chiller subplant 422, a heat recovery chiller subplant 423, a steam subplant 424, an electricity subplant 425, and subplant N, where N is the total number of subplants 420. In some embodiments, subplants 420 include some or all of the subplants of central plant 200, as described with reference to FIG. 2. For example, subplants 420 can include heater subplant 202, heat recovery chiller subplant 204, chiller subplant 206, and/or cooling tower subplant 208.

Subplants 420 can be configured to convert resource types, making it possible to balance requested loads from the building or campus using resources purchased from sources 410. For example, heater subplant 421 may be configured to generate hot thermal energy (e.g., hot water) by heating water using electricity or natural gas. Chiller subplant 422 may be configured to generate cold thermal energy (e.g., cold water) by chilling water using electricity. Heat recovery chiller subplant 423 may be configured to generate hot thermal energy and cold thermal energy by removing heat from one water supply and adding the heat to another water supply. Steam subplant 424 may be configured to generate steam by boiling water using electricity or natural gas. Electricity subplant 425 may be configured to generate electricity using mechanical generators (e.g., a steam turbine, a gas-powered generator, etc.) or other types of electricity-generating equipment (e.g., photovoltaic equipment, hydroelectric equipment, etc.).

The input resources used by subplants 420 may be provided by sources 410, retrieved from storage 430, and/or generated by other subplants 420. For example, steam subplant 424 may produce steam as an output resource. Electricity subplant 425 may include a steam turbine that uses the steam generated by steam subplant 424 as an input resource to generate electricity. The output resources produced by subplants 420 may be stored in storage 430, provided to sinks 440, and/or used by other subplants 420. For example, the electricity generated by electricity subplant 425 may be stored in electrical energy storage 433, used by chiller subplant 422 to generate cold thermal energy, used to satisfy the electric load 445 of a building, or sold to resource purchasers 441.

Storage 430 can be configured to store energy or other types of resources for later use. Each type of storage within storage 430 may be configured to store a different type of resource. For example, storage 430 is shown to include hot thermal energy storage 431 (e.g., one or more hot water storage tanks), cold thermal energy storage 432 (e.g., one or more cold thermal energy storage tanks), electrical energy storage 433 (e.g., one or more batteries), and resource type P storage 434, where P is the total number of storage 430. In some embodiments, storage 430 include some or all of the storage of central plant 200, as described with reference to FIG. 2. In some embodiments, storage 430 includes the heat capacity of the building served by the central plant. The resources stored in storage 430 may be purchased directly from sources or generated by subplants 420.

In some embodiments, storage 430 is used by asset allocation system 400 to take advantage of price-based demand response (PBDR) programs. PBDR programs encourage consumers to reduce consumption when generation, transmission, and distribution costs are high. PBDR programs are typically implemented (e.g., by sources 410) in the form of energy prices that vary as a function of time. For example, some utilities may increase the price per unit of electricity during peak usage hours to encourage customers to reduce electricity consumption during peak times. Some utilities also charge consumers a separate demand charge based on the maximum rate of electricity consumption at any time during a predetermined demand charge period.

Advantageously, storing energy and other types of resources in storage 430 allows for the resources to be purchased at times when the resources are relatively less expensive (e.g., during non-peak electricity hours) and stored for use at times when the resources are relatively more expensive (e.g., during peak electricity hours). Storing resources in storage 430 also allows the resource demand of the building or campus to be shifted in time. For example, resources can be purchased from sources 410 at times when the demand for heating or cooling is low and immediately converted into hot or cold thermal energy by subplants 420. The thermal energy can be stored in storage 430 and retrieved at times when the demand for heating or cooling is high. This allows asset allocation system 400 to smooth the resource demand of the building or campus and reduces the maximum required capacity of subplants 420. Smoothing the demand also asset allocation system 400 to reduce the peak electricity consumption, which results in a lower demand charge.

In some embodiments, storage 430 is used by asset allocation system 400 to take advantage of incentive-based demand response (IBDR) programs. IBDR programs provide incentives to customers who have the capability to store energy, generate energy, or curtail energy usage upon request. Incentives are typically provided in the form of monetary revenue paid by sources 410 or by an independent service operator (ISO). IBDR programs supplement traditional utility-owned generation, transmission, and distribution assets with additional options for modifying demand load curves. For example, stored energy can be sold to resource purchasers 441 or an energy grid 442 to supplement the energy generated by sources 410. In some instances, incentives for participating in an IBDR program vary based on how quickly a system can respond to a request to change power output/consumption. Faster responses may be compensated at a higher level. Advantageously, electrical energy storage 433 allows system 400 to quickly respond to a request for electric power by rapidly discharging stored electrical energy to energy grid 442.

Sinks 440 may include the requested loads of a building or campus as well as other types of resource consumers. For example, sinks 440 are shown to include resource purchasers 441, an energy grid 442, a hot water load 443, a cold water load 444, an electric load 445, and sink Q, where Q is the total number of sinks 440. A building may consume various resources including, for example, hot thermal energy (e.g., hot water), cold thermal energy (e.g., cold water), and/or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the resources are consumed by equipment or subsystems within the building (e.g., HVAC equipment, lighting, computers and other electronics, etc.). The consumption of each sink 440 over the optimization period can be supplied as an input to asset allocation system 400 or predicted by asset allocation system 400. Sinks 440 can receive resources directly from sources 410, from subplants 420, and/or from storage 430.

Still referring to FIG. 4, asset allocation system 400 is shown to include an asset allocator 402. Asset allocator 402 may be configured to control the distribution, production, storage, and usage of resources in asset allocation system 400. In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 performs an optimization process determine an optimal set of control decisions for each time step within an optimization period. The control decisions may include, for example, an optimal amount of each resource to purchase from sources 410, an optimal amount of each resource to produce or convert using subplants 420, an optimal amount of each resource to store or remove from storage 430, an optimal amount of each resource to sell to resources purchasers 441 or energy grid 440, and/or an optimal amount of each resource to provide to other sinks 440. In some embodiments, the control decisions include an optimal amount of each input resource and output resource for each of subplants 420.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 is configured to optimally dispatch all campus energy assets in order to meet the requested heating, cooling, and electrical loads of the campus for each time step within an optimization horizon or optimization period of duration h. Instead of focusing on only the typical HVAC energy loads, the concept is extended to the concept of resource. Throughout this disclosure, the term “resource” is used to describe any type of commodity purchased from sources 410, used or produced by subplants 420, stored or discharged by storage 430, or consumed by sinks 440. For example, water may be considered a resource that is consumed by chillers, heaters, or cooling towers during operation. This general concept of a resource can be extended to chemical processing plants where one of the resources is the product that is being produced by the chemical processing plat.

Asset allocator 402 can be configured to operate the equipment of asset allocation system 400 to ensure that a resource balance is maintained at each time step of the optimization period. This resource balance is shown in the following equation:

Σx _(time)=0 ∀resources,∀time∈horizon

where the sum is taken over all producers and consumers of a given resource (i.e., all of sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and sinks 440) and time is the time index. Each time element represents a period of time during which the resource productions, requests, purchases, etc. are assumed constant. Asset allocator 402 may ensure that this equation is satisfied for all resources regardless of whether that resource is required by the building or campus. For example, some of the resources produced by subplants 420 may be intermediate resources that function only as inputs to other subplants 420.

In some embodiments, the resources balanced by asset allocator 402 include multiple resources of the same type (e.g., multiple chilled water resources, multiple electricity resources, etc.). Defining multiple resources of the same type may allow asset allocator 402 to satisfy the resource balance given the physical constraints and connections of the central plant equipment. For example, suppose a central plant has multiple chillers and multiple cold water storage tanks, with each chiller physically connected to a different cold water storage tank (i.e., chiller A is connected to cold water storage tank A, chiller B is connected to cold water storage tank B, etc.). Given that only one chiller can supply cold water to each cold water storage tank, a different cold water resource can be defined for the output of each chiller. This allows asset allocator 402 to ensure that the resource balance is satisfied for each cold water resource without attempting to allocate resources in a way that is physically impossible (e.g., storing the output of chiller A in cold water storage tank B, etc.).

Asset allocator 402 may be configured to minimize the economic cost (or maximize the economic value) of operating asset allocation system 400 over the duration of the optimization period. The economic cost may be defined by a cost function J(x) that expresses economic cost as a function of the control decisions made by asset allocator 402. The cost function J(x) may account for the cost of resources purchased from sources 410, as well as the revenue generated by selling resources to resource purchasers 441 or energy grid 442 or participating in incentive programs. The cost optimization performed by asset allocator 402 can be expressed as:

$\underset{x}{\arg\mspace{14mu}\min}\mspace{14mu}{J(x)}$

where J(x) is defined as follows:

${J(x)} = {{\sum\limits_{sources}{\sum\limits_{horizon}{{cost}\left( {{purchase}_{{resource},{time}},{time}} \right)}}} - {\sum\limits_{incentives}{\sum\limits_{horizon}{{revenue}({ReservationAmount})}}}}$

The first term in the cost function J(x) represents the total cost of all resources purchased over the optimization horizon. Resources can include, for example, water, electricity, natural gas, or other types of resources purchased from a utility or other source 410. The second term in the cost function J(x) represents the total revenue generated by participating in incentive programs (e.g., IBDR programs) over the optimization horizon. The revenue may be based on the amount of power reserved for participating in the incentive programs. Accordingly, the total cost function represents the total cost of resources purchased minus any revenue generated from participating in incentive programs.

Each of subplants 420 and storage 430 may include equipment that can be controlled by asset allocator 402 to optimize the performance of asset allocation system 400. Subplant equipment may include, for example, heating devices, chillers, heat recovery heat exchangers, cooling towers, energy storage devices, pumps, valves, and/or other devices of subplants 420 and storage 430. Individual devices of subplants 420 can be turned on or off to adjust the resource production of each subplant 420. In some embodiments, individual devices of subplants 420 can be operated at variable capacities (e.g., operating a chiller at 10% capacity or 60% capacity) according to an operating setpoint received from asset allocator 402. Asset allocator 402 can control the equipment of subplants 420 and storage 430 to adjust the amount of each resource purchased, consumed, and/or produced by system 400.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 minimizes the cost function while participating in PBDR programs, IBDR programs, or simultaneously in both PBDR and IBDR programs. For the IBDR programs, asset allocator 402 may use statistical estimates of past clearing prices, mileage ratios, and event probabilities to determine the revenue generation potential of selling stored energy to resource purchasers 441 or energy grid 442. For the PBDR programs, asset allocator 402 may use predictions of ambient conditions, facility thermal loads, and thermodynamic models of installed equipment to estimate the resource consumption of subplants 420. Asset allocator 402 may use predictions of the resource consumption to monetize the costs of running the equipment.

Asset allocator 402 may automatically determine (e.g., without human intervention) a combination of PBDR and/or IBDR programs in which to participate over the optimization horizon in order to maximize economic value. For example, asset allocator 402 may consider the revenue generation potential of IBDR programs, the cost reduction potential of PBDR programs, and the equipment maintenance/replacement costs that would result from participating in various combinations of the IBDR programs and PBDR programs. Asset allocator 402 may weigh the benefits of participation against the costs of participation to determine an optimal combination of programs in which to participate. Advantageously, this allows asset allocator 402 to determine an optimal set of control decisions that maximize the overall value of operating asset allocation system 400.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 optimizes the cost function J(x) subject to the following constraint, which guarantees the balance between resources purchased, produced, discharged, consumed, and requested over the optimization horizon:

${{{\sum\limits_{sources}{purchase}_{{resource},{time}}} + {\sum\limits_{subplants}{{produces}\left( {x_{{internal},{time}},x_{{external},{time}},v_{{uncontrolled},{time}}} \right)}} - {\sum\limits_{subplants}{{consumes}\left( {x_{{internal},{time}},x_{{external},{time}},v_{{uncontrolled},{time}}} \right)}} + {\sum\limits_{storages}{{discharges}_{resource}\left( {x_{{internal},{time}},x_{{external},{time}}} \right)}} - {\sum\limits_{sinks}{requests}_{resource}}} = {0\mspace{14mu}{\forall{resources}}}},{\forall{{time} \in {horizon}}}$

where x_(internal,time) includes internal decision variables (e.g., load allocated to each component of asset allocation system 400), x_(external,time) includes external decision variables (e.g., condenser water return temperature or other shared variables across subplants 420), and v_(uncontrolled,time) includes uncontrolled variables (e.g., weather conditions).

The first term in the previous equation represents the total amount of each resource (e.g., electricity, water, natural gas, etc.) purchased from each source 410 over the optimization horizon. The second and third terms represent the total production and consumption of each resource by subplants 420 over the optimization horizon. The fourth term represents the total amount of each resource discharged from storage 430 over the optimization horizon. Positive values indicate that the resource is discharged from storage 430, whereas negative values indicate that the resource is charged or stored. The fifth term represents the total amount of each resource requested by sinks 440 over the optimization horizon. Accordingly, this constraint ensures that the total amount of each resource purchased, produced, or discharged from storage 430 is equal to the amount of each resource consumed, stored, or provided to sinks 440.

In some embodiments, additional constraints exist on the regions in which subplants 420 can operate. Examples of such additional constraints include the acceptable space (i.e., the feasible region) for the decision variables given the uncontrolled conditions, the maximum amount of a resource that can be purchased from a given source 410, and any number of plant-specific constraints that result from the mechanical design of the plant. These additional constraints can be generated and imposed by operational domain module 904 (described in greater detail with reference to FIGS. 9 and 12).

Asset allocator 402 may include a variety of features that enable the application of asset allocator 402 to nearly any central plant, central energy facility, combined heating and cooling facility, or combined heat and power facility. These features include broadly applicable definitions for subplants 420, sinks 440, storage 430, and sources 410; multiples of the same type of subplant 420 or sink 440; subplant resource connections that describe which subplants 420 can send resources to which sinks 440 and at what efficiency; subplant minimum turndown into the asset allocation optimization; treating electrical energy as any other resource that must be balanced; constraints that can be commissioned during runtime; different levels of accuracy at different points in the horizon; setpoints (or other decisions) that are shared between multiple subplants included in the decision vector; disjoint subplant operation regions; incentive based electrical energy programs; and high level airside models. Incorporation of these features may allow asset allocator 402 to support a majority of the central energy facilities that will be seen in the future. Additionally, it will be possible to rapidly adapt to the inclusion of new subplant types. Some of these features are described in greater detail below.

Broadly applicable definitions for subplants 420, sinks 440, storage 430, and sources 410 allow each of these components to be described by the mapping from decision variables to resources consume and resources produced. Resources and other components of system 400 do not need to be “typed,” but rather can be defined generally. The mapping from decision variables to resource consumption and production can change based on extrinsic conditions. Asset allocator 420 can solve the optimization problem by simply balancing resource use and can be configured to solve in terms of consumed resource 1, consumed resource 2, produced resource 1, etc., rather than electricity consumed, water consumed, and chilled water produced. Such an interface at the high level allows for the mappings to be injected into asset allocation system 400 rather than needing them hard coded. Of course, “typed” resources and other components of system 400 can still exist in order to generate the mapping at run time, based on equipment out of service.

Incorporating multiple subplants 420 or sinks 440 of the same type allows for modeling the interconnections between subplants 420, sources 410, storage 430, and sinks 440. This type of modeling describes which subplants 420 can use resource from which sources 410 and which subplants 420 can send resources to which sinks 440. This can be visualized as a resource connection matrix (i.e., a directed graph) between the subplants 420, sources 410, sinks 440, and storage 430. Examples of such directed graphs are described in greater detail with reference to FIGS. 5A-5B. Extending this concept, it is possible to include costs for delivering the resource along a connection and also, efficiencies of the transmission (e.g., amount of energy that makes it to the other side of the connection).

In some instances, constraints arise due to mechanical problems after an energy facility has been built. Accordingly, these constraints are site specific and are often not incorporated into the main code for any of subplants 420 or the high level problem itself. Commissioned constraints allow for such constraints to be added without software updates during the commissioning phase of the project. Furthermore, if these additional constraints are known prior to the plant build, they can be added to the design tool run. This would allow the user to determine the cost of making certain design decisions.

Incorporating minimum turndown and allowing disjoint operating regions may greatly enhance the accuracy of the asset allocation problem solution as well as decrease the number of modifications to solution of the asset allocation by the low level optimization or another post-processing technique. It may be beneficial to allow for certain features to change as a function of time into the horizon. One could use the full disjoint range (most accurate) for the first four hours, then switch to only incorporating the minimum turndown for the next two days, and finally using to the linear relaxation with no binary constraints for the rest of the horizon. For example, asset allocator 402 can be given the operational domain that correctly allocates three chillers with a range of 1800 to 2500 tons. The true subplant range is then the union of [1800, 2500], [3600, 5000], and [5400, 7500]. If the range were approximated as [1800, 7500] the low level optimization or other post-processing technique would have to rebalance any solution between 2500 and 3600 or between 5000 and 5400 tons. Rebalancing is typically done heuristically and is unlikely to be optimal. Incorporating these disjoint operational domains adds binary variables to the optimization problem (described in greater detail below).

Some decisions made by asset allocator 402 may be shared by multiple elements of system 400. The condenser water setpoint of cooling towers is an example. It is possible to assume that this variable is fixed and allow the low level optimization to decide on its value. However, this does not allow one to make a trade-off between the chiller's electrical use and the tower's electrical use, nor does it allow the optimization to exceed the chiller's design load by feeding it cooler condenser water. Incorporating these extrinsic decisions into asset allocator 402 allows for a more accurate solution at the cost of computational time.

Incentive programs often require the reservation of one or more assets for a period of time. In traditional systems, these assets are typically turned over to alternative control, different than the typical resource price based optimization. Advantageously, asset allocator 402 can be configured to add revenue to the cost function per amount of resource reserved. Asset allocator 402 can then make the reserved portion of the resource unavailable for typical price based cost optimization. For example, asset allocator 402 can reserve a portion of a battery asset for frequency response. In this case, the battery can be used to move the load or shave the peak demand, but can also be reserved to participate in the frequency response program.

Plant Resource Diagrams

Referring now to FIG. 5A, a plant resource diagram 500 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Plant resource diagram 500 represents a particular implementation of a central plant and indicates how the equipment of the central plant are connected to each other and to external systems or devices. Asset allocator 402 can use plant resource diagram 500 to identify the interconnections between various sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and sinks 440 in the central plant. In some instances, the interconnections defined by diagram 500 are not capable of being inferred based on the type of resource produced. For this reason, plant resource diagram 500 may provide asset allocator 402 with new information that can be used to establish constraints on the asset allocation problem.

Plant resource diagram 500 is shown to include an electric utility 502, a water utility 504, and a natural gas utility 506. Utilities 502-506 are examples of sources 410 that provide resources to the central plant. For example, electric utility 502 may provide an electricity resource 508, water utility 504 may provide a water resource 510, and natural gas utility 506 may provide a natural gas resource 512. The lines connecting utilities 502-506 to resources 508-512 along with the directions of the lines (i.e., pointing toward resources 508-512) indicate that resources purchased from utilities 502-506 add to resources 508-512.

Plant resource diagram 500 is shown to include a chiller subplant 520, a heat recovery (HR) chiller subplant 522, a hot water generator subplant 524, and a cooling tower subplant 526. Subplants 520-526 are examples of subplants 420 that convert resource types (i.e., convert input resources to output resources). For example, the lines connecting electricity resource 508 and water resource 510 to chiller subplant 520 indicate that chiller subplant 520 receives electricity resource 508 and water resource 510 as input resources. The lines connecting chiller subplant 520 to chilled water resource 514 and condenser water resource 516 indicate that chiller subplant 520 produces chilled water resource 514 and condenser water resource 516. Similarly, the lines connecting electricity resource 508 and water resource 510 to HR chiller subplant 522 indicate that HR chiller subplant 522 receives electricity resource 508 and water resource 510 as input resources. The lines connecting HR chiller subplant 522 to chilled water resource 514 and hot water resource 518 indicate that HR chiller subplant 522 produces chilled water resource 514 and hot water resource 518.

Plant resource diagram 500 is shown to include water TES 528 and 530. Water TES 528-530 are examples of storage 530 that can be used to store and discharge resources. The line connecting chilled water resource 514 to water TES 528 indicates that water TES 528 stores and discharges chilled water resource 514. Similarly, the line connecting hot water resource 518 to water TES 530 indicates that water TES 530 stores and discharges hot water resource 518. In diagram 500, water TES 528 is connected to only chilled water resource 514 and not to any of the other water resources 516 or 518. This indicates that water TES 528 can be used by asset allocator 402 to store and discharge only chilled water resource 514 and not the other water resources 516 or 518. Similarly, water TES 530 is connected to only hot water resource 518 and not to any of the other water resources 514 or 516. This indicates that water TES 530 can be used by asset allocator 402 to store and discharge only hot water resource 518 and not the other water resources 514 or 516.

Plant resource diagram 500 is shown to include a chilled water load 532 and a hot water load 534. Loads 532-534 are examples of sinks 440 that consume resources. The line connecting chilled water load 532 to chilled water resource 514 indicates that chilled water resource 514 can be used to satisfy chilled water load 532. Similarly, the line connecting hot water load 534 to hot water resource 518 indicates that hot water resource 518 can be used to satisfy hot water load 534. Asset allocator 402 can use the interconnections and limitations defined by plant resource diagram 500 to establish appropriate constraints on the optimization problem.

Referring now to FIG. 5B, another plant resource diagram 550 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Plant resource diagram 550 represents another implementation of a central plant and indicates how the equipment of the central plant are connected to each other and to external systems or devices. Asset allocator 402 can use plant resource diagram 550 to identify the interconnections between various sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and sinks 440 in the central plant. In some instances, the interconnections defined by diagram 550 are not capable of being inferred based on the type of resource produced. For this reason, plant resource diagram 550 may provide asset allocator 402 with new information that can be used to establish constraints on the asset allocation problem.

Plant resource diagram 550 is shown to include an electric utility 552, a water utility 554, and a natural gas utility 556. Utilities 552-556 are examples of sources 410 that provide resources to the central plant. For example, electric utility 552 may provide an electricity resource 558, water utility 554 may provide a water resource 560, and natural gas utility 556 may provide a natural gas resource 562. The lines connecting utilities 552-556 to resources 558-562 along with the directions of the lines (i.e., pointing toward resources 558-562) indicate that resources purchased from utilities 552-556 add to resources 558-562. The line connecting electricity resource 558 to electrical storage 551 indicates that electrical storage 551 can store and discharge electricity resource 558.

Plant resource diagram 550 is shown to include a boiler subplant 572, a cogeneration subplant 574, several steam chiller subplants 576-580, several chiller subplants 582-586, and several cooling tower subplants 588-592. Subplants 572-592 are examples of subplants 420 that convert resource types (i.e., convert input resources to output resources). For example, the lines connecting boiler subplant 572 and cogeneration subplant 574 to natural gas resource 562, electricity resource 558, and steam resource 564 indicate that both boiler subplant 572 and cogeneration subplant 574 consume natural gas resource 562 and electricity resource 558 to produce steam resource 564.

The lines connecting steam resource 564 and electricity resource 558 to steam chiller subplants 576-580 indicate that each of steam chiller subplants 576-580 receives steam resource 564 and electricity resource 558 as input resources. However, each of steam chiller subplants 576-580 produces a different output resource. For example, steam chiller subplant 576 produces chilled water resource 566, steam chiller subplant 578 produces chilled water resource 568, and steam chiller subplant 580 produces chilled water resource 570. Similarly, the lines connecting electricity resource 558 to chiller subplants 582-586 indicate that each of chiller subplants 582-586 receives electricity resource 558 as an input. However, each of chiller subplants 582-586 produces a different output resource. For example, chiller subplant 582 produces chilled water resource 566, chiller subplant 584 produces chilled water resource 568, and chiller subplant 586 produces chilled water resource 570.

Chilled water resources 566-570 have the same general type (i.e., chilled water) but can be defined as separate resources by asset allocator 402. The lines connecting chilled water resources 566-570 to subplants 576-586 indicate which of subplants 576-586 can produce each chilled water resource 566-570. For example, plant resource diagram 550 indicates that chilled water resource 566 can only be produced by steam chiller subplant 576 and chiller subplant 582. Similarly, chilled water resource 568 can only be produced by steam chiller subplant 578 and chiller subplant 584, and chilled water resource 570 can only be produced by steam chiller subplant 580 and chiller subplant 586.

Plant resource diagram 550 is shown to include a hot water load 599 and several cold water loads 594-598. Loads 594-599 are examples of sinks 440 that consume resources. The line connecting hot water load 599 to steam resource 564 indicates that steam resource 564 can be used to satisfy hot water load 599. Similarly, the lines connecting chilled water resources 566-570 to cold water loads 594-598 indicate which of chilled water resources 566-570 can be used to satisfy each of cold water loads 594-598. For example, only chilled water resource 566 can be used to satisfy cold water load 594, only chilled water resource 568 can be used to satisfy cold water load 596, and only chilled water resource 570 can be used to satisfy cold water load 598. Asset allocator 402 can use the interconnections and limitations defined by plant resource diagram 550 to establish appropriate constraints on the optimization problem.

Central Plant Controller

Referring now to FIG. 6, a block diagram of a central plant controller 600 in which asset allocator 402 can be implemented is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. In various embodiments, central plant controller 600 can be configured to monitor and control central plant 200, asset allocation system 400, and various components thereof (e.g., sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, sinks 440, etc.). Central plant controller 600 is shown providing control decisions to a building management system (BMS) 606. The control decisions provided to BMS 606 may include resource purchase amounts for sources 410, setpoints for subplants 420, and/or charge/discharge rates for storage 430.

In some embodiments, BMS 606 is the same or similar to the BMS described with reference to FIG. 1. BMS 606 may be configured to monitor conditions within a controlled building or building zone. For example, BMS 606 may receive input from various sensors (e.g., temperature sensors, humidity sensors, airflow sensors, voltage sensors, etc.) distributed throughout the building and may report building conditions to central plant controller 600. Building conditions may include, for example, a temperature of the building or a zone of the building, a power consumption (e.g., electric load) of the building, a state of one or more actuators configured to affect a controlled state within the building, or other types of information relating to the controlled building. BMS 606 may operate subplants 420 and storage 430 to affect the monitored conditions within the building and to serve the thermal energy loads of the building.

BMS 606 may receive control signals from central plant controller 600 specifying on/off states, charge/discharge rates, and/or setpoints for the subplant equipment. BMS 606 may control the equipment (e.g., via actuators, power relays, etc.) in accordance with the control signals provided by central plant controller 600. For example, BMS 606 may operate the equipment using closed loop control to achieve the setpoints specified by central plant controller 600. In various embodiments, BMS 606 may be combined with central plant controller 600 or may be part of a separate building management system. According to an exemplary embodiment, BMS 606 is a METASYS® brand building management system, as sold by Johnson Controls, Inc.

Central plant controller 600 may monitor the status of the controlled building using information received from BMS 606. Central plant controller 600 may be configured to predict the thermal energy loads (e.g., heating loads, cooling loads, etc.) of the building for plurality of time steps in an optimization period (e.g., using weather forecasts from a weather service 604). Central plant controller 600 may also predict the revenue generation potential of incentive based demand response (IBDR) programs using an incentive event history (e.g., past clearing prices, mileage ratios, event probabilities, etc.) from incentive programs 602. Central plant controller 600 may generate control decisions that optimize the economic value of operating central plant 200 over the duration of the optimization period subject to constraints on the optimization process (e.g., energy balance constraints, load satisfaction constraints, etc.). The optimization process performed by central plant controller 600 is described in greater detail below.

In some embodiments, central plant controller 600 is integrated within a single computer (e.g., one server, one housing, etc.). In various other exemplary embodiments, central plant controller 600 can be distributed across multiple servers or computers (e.g., that can exist in distributed locations). In another exemplary embodiment, central plant controller 600 may integrated with a smart building manager that manages multiple building systems and/or combined with BMS 606.

Central plant controller 600 is shown to include a communications interface 636 and a processing circuit 607. Communications interface 636 may include wired or wireless interfaces (e.g., jacks, antennas, transmitters, receivers, transceivers, wire terminals, etc.) for conducting data communications with various systems, devices, or networks. For example, communications interface 636 may include an Ethernet card and port for sending and receiving data via an Ethernet-based communications network and/or a WiFi transceiver for communicating via a wireless communications network. Communications interface 636 may be configured to communicate via local area networks or wide area networks (e.g., the Internet, a building WAN, etc.) and may use a variety of communications protocols (e.g., BACnet, IP, LON, etc.).

Communications interface 636 may be a network interface configured to facilitate electronic data communications between central plant controller 600 and various external systems or devices (e.g., BMS 606, subplants 420, storage 430, sources 410, etc.). For example, central plant controller 600 may receive information from BMS 606 indicating one or more measured states of the controlled building (e.g., temperature, humidity, electric loads, etc.) and one or more states of subplants 420 and/or storage 430 (e.g., equipment status, power consumption, equipment availability, etc.). Communications interface 636 may receive inputs from BMS 606, subplants 420, and/or storage 430 and may provide operating parameters (e.g., on/off decisions, setpoints, etc.) to subplants 420 and storage 430 via BMS 606. The operating parameters may cause subplants 420 and storage 430 to activate, deactivate, or adjust a setpoint for various devices thereof.

Still referring to FIG. 6, processing circuit 607 is shown to include a processor 608 and memory 610. Processor 608 may be a general purpose or specific purpose processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), a group of processing components, or other suitable processing components. Processor 608 may be configured to execute computer code or instructions stored in memory 610 or received from other computer readable media (e.g., CDROM, network storage, a remote server, etc.).

Memory 610 may include one or more devices (e.g., memory units, memory devices, storage devices, etc.) for storing data and/or computer code for completing and/or facilitating the various processes described in the present disclosure. Memory 610 may include random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), hard drive storage, temporary storage, non-volatile memory, flash memory, optical memory, or any other suitable memory for storing software objects and/or computer instructions. Memory 610 may include database components, object code components, script components, or any other type of information structure for supporting the various activities and information structures described in the present disclosure. Memory 610 may be communicably connected to processor 608 via processing circuit 607 and may include computer code for executing (e.g., by processor 608) one or more processes described herein.

Memory 610 is shown to include a building status monitor 624. Central plant controller 600 may receive data regarding the overall building or building space to be heated or cooled by system 400 via building status monitor 624. In an exemplary embodiment, building status monitor 624 may include a graphical user interface component configured to provide graphical user interfaces to a user for selecting building requirements (e.g., overall temperature parameters, selecting schedules for the building, selecting different temperature levels for different building zones, etc.).

Central plant controller 600 may determine on/off configurations and operating setpoints to satisfy the building requirements received from building status monitor 624. In some embodiments, building status monitor 624 receives, collects, stores, and/or transmits cooling load requirements, building temperature setpoints, occupancy data, weather data, energy data, schedule data, and other building parameters. In some embodiments, building status monitor 624 stores data regarding energy costs, such as pricing information available from sources 410 (energy charge, demand charge, etc.).

Still referring to FIG. 6, memory 610 is shown to include a load/rate predictor 622. Load/rate predictor 622 may be configured to predict the thermal energy loads (

_(k)) of the building or campus for each time step k (e.g., k=1 . . . n) of an optimization period. Load/rate predictor 622 is shown receiving weather forecasts from a weather service 604. In

some embodiments, load/rate predictor 622 predicts the thermal energy loads e as a function of the weather forecasts. In some embodiments, load/rate predictor 622 uses feedback from BMS 606 to predict loads

_(k). Feedback from BMS 606 may include various types of sensory inputs (e.g., temperature, flow, humidity, enthalpy, etc.) or other data relating to the controlled building (e.g., inputs from a HVAC system, a lighting control system, a security system, a water system, etc.).

In some embodiments, load/rate predictor 622 receives a measured electric load and/or previous measured load data from BMS 606 (e.g., via building status monitor 624). Load/rate predictor 622 may predict loads

_(k) as a function of a given weather forecast ({circumflex over (ϕ)}_(w)), a day type (day), the time of day (t), and previous measured load data (Y_(k−1)). Such a relationship is expressed in the following equation:

_(k) =f({circumflex over (ϕ)}_(w),day,t|Y _(k−1))

In some embodiments, load/rate predictor 622 uses a deterministic plus stochastic model trained from historical load data to predict loads

_(k). Load/rate predictor 622 may use any of a variety of prediction methods to predict loads

_(k) (e.g., linear regression for the deterministic portion and an AR model for the stochastic portion). Load/rate predictor 622 may predict one or more different types of loads for the building or campus. For example, load/rate predictor 622 may predict a hot water load

_(Hot,k) and a cold water load

_(cold,k) for each time step k within the prediction window. In some embodiments, load/rate predictor 622 makes load/rate predictions using the techniques described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/717,593.

Load/rate predictor 622 is shown receiving utility rates from sources 410. Utility rates may indicate a cost or price per unit of a resource (e.g., electricity, natural gas, water, etc.) provided by sources 410 at each time step k in the prediction window. In some embodiments, the utility rates are time-variable rates. For example, the price of electricity may be higher at certain times of day or days of the week (e.g., during high demand periods) and lower at other times of day or days of the week (e.g., during low demand periods). The utility rates may define various time periods and a cost per unit of a resource during each time period. Utility rates may be actual rates received from sources 410 or predicted utility rates estimated by load/rate predictor 622.

In some embodiments, the utility rates include demand charges for one or more resources provided by sources 410. A demand charge may define a separate cost imposed by sources 410 based on the maximum usage of a particular resource (e.g., maximum energy consumption) during a demand charge period. The utility rates may define various demand charge periods and one or more demand charges associated with each demand charge period. In some instances, demand charge periods may overlap partially or completely with each other and/or with the prediction window. Advantageously, demand response optimizer 630 may be configured to account for demand charges in the high level optimization process performed by asset allocator 402. Sources 410 may be defined by time-variable (e.g., hourly) prices, a maximum service level (e.g., a maximum rate of consumption allowed by the physical infrastructure or by contract) and, in the case of electricity, a demand charge or a charge for the peak rate of consumption within a certain period. Load/rate predictor 622 may store the predicted loads

_(k) and the utility rates in memory 610 and/or provide the predicted loads

_(k) and the utility rates to demand response optimizer 630.

Still referring to FIG. 6, memory 610 is shown to include an incentive estimator 620. Incentive estimator 620 may be configured to estimate the revenue generation potential of participating in various incentive-based demand response (IBDR) programs. In some embodiments, incentive estimator 620 receives an incentive event history from incentive programs 602. The incentive event history may include a history of past IBDR events from incentive programs 602. An IBDR event may include an invitation from incentive programs 602 to participate in an IBDR program in exchange for a monetary incentive. The incentive event history may indicate the times at which the past IBDR events occurred and attributes describing the IBDR events (e.g., clearing prices, mileage ratios, participation requirements, etc.). Incentive estimator 620 may use the incentive event history to estimate IBDR event probabilities during the optimization period.

Incentive estimator 620 is shown providing incentive predictions to demand response optimizer 630. The incentive predictions may include the estimated IBDR probabilities, estimated participation requirements, an estimated amount of revenue from participating in the estimated IBDR events, and/or any other attributes of the predicted IBDR events. Demand response optimizer 630 may use the incentive predictions along with the predicted loads

_(k) and utility rates from load/rate predictor 622 to determine an optimal set of control decisions for each time step within the optimization period.

Still referring to FIG. 6, memory 610 is shown to include a demand response optimizer 630. Demand response optimizer 630 may perform a cascaded optimization process to optimize the performance of asset allocation system 400. For example, demand response optimizer 630 is shown to include asset allocator 402 and a low level optimizer 634. Asset allocator 402 may control an outer (e.g., subplant level) loop of the cascaded optimization. Asset allocator 402 may determine an optimal set of control decisions for each time step in the prediction window in order to optimize (e.g., maximize) the value of operating asset allocation system 400. Control decisions made by asset allocator 402 may include, for example, load setpoints for each of subplants 420, charge/discharge rates for each of storage 430, resource purchase amounts for each type of resource purchased from sources 410, and/or an amount of each resource sold to energy purchasers 504. In other words, the control decisions may define resource allocation at each time step. The control decisions made by asset allocator 402 are based on the statistical estimates of incentive event probabilities and revenue generation potential for various IBDR events as well as the load and rate predictions.

Low level optimizer 634 may control an inner (e.g., equipment level) loop of the cascaded optimization. Low level optimizer 634 may determine how to best run each subplant at the load setpoint determined by asset allocator 402. For example, low level optimizer 634 may determine on/off states and/or operating setpoints for various devices of the subplant equipment in order to optimize (e.g., minimize) the energy consumption of each subplant while meeting the resource allocation setpoint for the subplant. In some embodiments, low level optimizer 634 receives actual incentive events from incentive programs 602. Low level optimizer 634 may determine whether to participate in the incentive events based on the resource allocation set by asset allocator 402. For example, if insufficient resources have been allocated to a particular IBDR program by asset allocator 402 or if the allocated resources have already been used, low level optimizer 634 may determine that asset allocation system 400 will not participate in the IBDR program and may ignore the IBDR event. However, if the required resources have been allocated to the IBDR program and are available in storage 430, low level optimizer 634 may determine that system 400 will participate in the IBDR program in response to the IBDR event. The cascaded optimization process performed by demand response optimizer 630 is described in greater detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/247,885.

In some embodiments, low level optimizer 634 generates and provides subplant curves to asset allocator 402. Each subplant curve may indicate an amount of resource consumption by a particular subplant (e.g., electricity use measured in kW, water use measured in L/s, etc.) as a function of the subplant load. In some embodiments, low level optimizer 634 generates the subplant curves by running the low level optimization process for various combinations of subplant loads and weather conditions to generate multiple data points. Low level optimizer 634 may fit a curve to the data points to generate the subplant curves. In other embodiments, low level optimizer 634 provides the data points asset allocator 402 and asset allocator 402 generates the subplant curves using the data points. Asset allocator 402 may store the subplant curves in memory for use in the high level (i.e., asset allocation) optimization process.

In some embodiments, the subplant curves are generated by combining efficiency curves for individual devices of a subplant. A device efficiency curve may indicate the amount of resource consumption by the device as a function of load. The device efficiency curves may be provided by a device manufacturer or generated using experimental data. In some embodiments, the device efficiency curves are based on an initial efficiency curve provided by a device manufacturer and updated using experimental data. The device efficiency curves may be stored in equipment models 618. For some devices, the device efficiency curves may indicate that resource consumption is a U-shaped function of load. Accordingly, when multiple device efficiency curves are combined into a subplant curve for the entire subplant, the resultant subplant curve may be a wavy curve. The waves are caused by a single device loading up before it is more efficient to turn on another device to satisfy the subplant load. An example of such a subplant curve is shown in FIG. 13.

Still referring to FIG. 6, memory 610 is shown to include a subplant control module 628. Subplant control module 628 may store historical data regarding past operating statuses, past operating setpoints, and instructions for calculating and/or implementing control parameters for subplants 420 and storage 430. Subplant control module 628 may also receive, store, and/or transmit data regarding the conditions of individual devices of the subplant equipment, such as operating efficiency, equipment degradation, a date since last service, a lifespan parameter, a condition grade, or other device-specific data. Subplant control module 628 may receive data from subplants 420, storage 430, and/or BMS 606 via communications interface 636. Subplant control module 628 may also receive and store on/off statuses and operating setpoints from low level optimizer 634.

Data and processing results from demand response optimizer 630, subplant control module 628, or other modules of central plant controller 600 may be accessed by (or pushed to) monitoring and reporting applications 626. Monitoring and reporting applications 626 may be configured to generate real time “system health” dashboards that can be viewed and navigated by a user (e.g., a system engineer). For example, monitoring and reporting applications 626 may include a web-based monitoring application with several graphical user interface (GUI) elements (e.g., widgets, dashboard controls, windows, etc.) for displaying key performance indicators (KPI) or other information to users of a GUI. In addition, the GUI elements may summarize relative energy use and intensity across energy storage systems in different buildings (real or modeled), different campuses, or the like. Other GUI elements or reports may be generated and shown based on available data that allow users to assess performance across one or more energy storage systems from one screen. The user interface or report (or underlying data engine) may be configured to aggregate and categorize operating conditions by building, building type, equipment type, and the like. The GUI elements may include charts or histograms that allow the user to visually analyze the operating parameters and power consumption for the devices of the energy storage system.

Still referring to FIG. 6, central plant controller 600 may include one or more GUI servers, web services 612, or GUI engines 614 to support monitoring and reporting applications 626. In various embodiments, applications 626, web services 612, and GUI engine 614 may be provided as separate components outside of central plant controller 600 (e.g., as part of a smart building manager). Central plant controller 600 may be configured to maintain detailed historical databases (e.g., relational databases, XML databases, etc.) of relevant data and includes computer code modules that continuously, frequently, or infrequently query, aggregate, transform, search, or otherwise process the data maintained in the detailed databases. Central plant controller 600 may be configured to provide the results of any such processing to other databases, tables, XML files, or other data structures for further querying, calculation, or access by, for example, external monitoring and reporting applications.

Central plant controller 600 is shown to include configuration tools 616. Configuration tools 616 can allow a user to define (e.g., via graphical user interfaces, via prompt-driven “wizards,” etc.) how central plant controller 600 should react to changing conditions in the energy storage subsystems. In an exemplary embodiment, configuration tools 616 allow a user to build and store condition-response scenarios that can cross multiple energy storage system devices, multiple building systems, and multiple enterprise control applications (e.g., work order management system applications, entity resource planning applications, etc.). For example, configuration tools 616 can provide the user with the ability to combine data (e.g., from subsystems, from event histories) using a variety of conditional logic. In varying exemplary embodiments, the conditional logic can range from simple logical operators between conditions (e.g., AND, OR, XOR, etc.) to pseudo-code constructs or complex programming language functions (allowing for more complex interactions, conditional statements, loops, etc.). Configuration tools 616 can present user interfaces for building such conditional logic. The user interfaces may allow users to define policies and responses graphically. In some embodiments, the user interfaces may allow a user to select a pre-stored or pre-constructed policy and adapt it or enable it for use with their system.

Planning Tool

Referring now to FIG. 7, a block diagram of a planning tool 700 in which asset allocator 402 can be implemented is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Planning tool 700 may be configured to use demand response optimizer 630 to simulate the operation of a central plant over a predetermined time period (e.g., a day, a month, a week, a year, etc.) for planning, budgeting, and/or design considerations. When implemented in planning tool 700, demand response optimizer 630 may operate in a similar manner as described with reference to FIG. 6. For example, demand response optimizer 630 may use building loads and utility rates to determine an optimal resource allocation to minimize cost over a simulation period. However, planning tool 700 may not be responsible for real-time control of a building management system or central plant.

Planning tool 700 can be configured to determine the benefits of investing in a battery asset and the financial metrics associated with the investment. Such financial metrics can include, for example, the internal rate of return (IRR), net present value (NPV), and/or simple payback period (SPP). Planning tool 700 can also assist a user in determining the size of the battery which yields optimal financial metrics such as maximum NPV or a minimum SPP. In some embodiments, planning tool 700 allows a user to specify a battery size and automatically determines the benefits of the battery asset from participating in selected IBDR programs while performing PBDR. In some embodiments, planning tool 700 is configured to determine the battery size that minimizes SPP given the IBDR programs selected and the requirement of performing PBDR. In some embodiments, planning tool 700 is configured to determine the battery size that maximizes NPV given the IBDR programs selected and the requirement of performing PBDR.

In planning tool 700, asset allocator 402 may receive planned loads and utility rates for the entire simulation period. The planned loads and utility rates may be defined by input received from a user via a client device 722 (e.g., user-defined, user selected, etc.) and/or retrieved from a plan information database 726. Asset allocator 402 uses the planned loads and utility rates in conjunction with subplant curves from low level optimizer 634 to determine an optimal resource allocation (i.e., an optimal dispatch schedule) for a portion of the simulation period.

The portion of the simulation period over which asset allocator 402 optimizes the resource allocation may be defined by a prediction window ending at a time horizon. With each iteration of the optimization, the prediction window is shifted forward and the portion of the dispatch schedule no longer in the prediction window is accepted (e.g., stored or output as results of the simulation). Load and rate predictions may be predefined for the entire simulation and may not be subject to adjustments in each iteration. However, shifting the prediction window forward in time may introduce additional plan information (e.g., planned loads and/or utility rates) for the newly-added time slice at the end of the prediction window. The new plan information may not have a significant effect on the optimal dispatch schedule since only a small portion of the prediction window changes with each iteration.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 requests all of the subplant curves used in the simulation from low level optimizer 634 at the beginning of the simulation. Since the planned loads and environmental conditions are known for the entire simulation period, asset allocator 402 may retrieve all of the relevant subplant curves at the beginning of the simulation. In some embodiments, low level optimizer 634 generates functions that map subplant production to equipment level production and resource use when the subplant curves are provided to asset allocator 402. These subplant to equipment functions may be used to calculate the individual equipment production and resource use (e.g., in a post-processing module) based on the results of the simulation.

Still referring to FIG. 7, planning tool 700 is shown to include a communications interface 704 and a processing circuit 706. Communications interface 704 may include wired or wireless interfaces (e.g., jacks, antennas, transmitters, receivers, transceivers, wire terminals, etc.) for conducting data communications with various systems, devices, or networks. For example, communications interface 704 may include an Ethernet card and port for sending and receiving data via an Ethernet-based communications network and/or a WiFi transceiver for communicating via a wireless communications network. Communications interface 704 may be configured to communicate via local area networks or wide area networks (e.g., the Internet, a building WAN, etc.) and may use a variety of communications protocols (e.g., BACnet, IP, LON, etc.).

Communications interface 704 may be a network interface configured to facilitate electronic data communications between planning tool 700 and various external systems or devices (e.g., client device 722, results database 728, plan information database 726, etc.). For example, planning tool 700 may receive planned loads and utility rates from client device 722 and/or plan information database 726 via communications interface 704. Planning tool 700 may use communications interface 704 to output results of the simulation to client device 722 and/or to store the results in results database 728.

Still referring to FIG. 7, processing circuit 706 is shown to include a processor 710 and memory 712. Processor 710 may be a general purpose or specific purpose processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), a group of processing components, or other suitable processing components. Processor 710 may be configured to execute computer code or instructions stored in memory 712 or received from other computer readable media (e.g., CDROM, network storage, a remote server, etc.).

Memory 712 may include one or more devices (e.g., memory units, memory devices, storage devices, etc.) for storing data and/or computer code for completing and/or facilitating the various processes described in the present disclosure. Memory 712 may include random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), hard drive storage, temporary storage, non-volatile memory, flash memory, optical memory, or any other suitable memory for storing software objects and/or computer instructions. Memory 712 may include database components, object code components, script components, or any other type of information structure for supporting the various activities and information structures described in the present disclosure. Memory 712 may be communicably connected to processor 710 via processing circuit 706 and may include computer code for executing (e.g., by processor 710) one or more processes described herein.

Still referring to FIG. 7, memory 712 is shown to include a GUI engine 716, web services 714, and configuration tools 718. In an exemplary embodiment, GUI engine 716 includes a graphical user interface component configured to provide graphical user interfaces to a user for selecting or defining plan information for the simulation (e.g., planned loads, utility rates, environmental conditions, etc.). Web services 714 may allow a user to interact with planning tool 700 via a web portal and/or from a remote system or device (e.g., an enterprise control application).

Configuration tools 718 can allow a user to define (e.g., via graphical user interfaces, via prompt-driven “wizards,” etc.) various parameters of the simulation such as the number and type of subplants, the devices within each subplant, the subplant curves, device-specific efficiency curves, the duration of the simulation, the duration of the prediction window, the duration of each time step, and/or various other types of plan information related to the simulation. Configuration tools 718 can present user interfaces for building the simulation. The user interfaces may allow users to define simulation parameters graphically. In some embodiments, the user interfaces allow a user to select a pre-stored or pre-constructed simulated plant and/or plan information (e.g., from plan information database 726) and adapt it or enable it for use in the simulation.

Still referring to FIG. 7, memory 712 is shown to include demand response optimizer 630. Demand response optimizer 630 may use the planned loads and utility rates to determine an optimal resource allocation over a prediction window. The operation of demand response optimizer 630 may be the same or similar as previously described with reference to FIG. 6. With each iteration of the optimization process, demand response optimizer 630 may shift the prediction window forward and apply the optimal resource allocation for the portion of the simulation period no longer in the prediction window. Demand response optimizer 630 may use the new plan information at the end of the prediction window to perform the next iteration of the optimization process. Demand response optimizer 630 may output the applied resource allocation to reporting applications 730 for presentation to a client device 722 (e.g., via user interface 724) or storage in results database 728.

Still referring to FIG. 7, memory 712 is shown to include reporting applications 730. Reporting applications 730 may receive the optimized resource allocations from demand response optimizer 630 and, in some embodiments, costs associated with the optimized resource allocations. Reporting applications 730 may include a web-based reporting application with several graphical user interface (GUI) elements (e.g., widgets, dashboard controls, windows, etc.) for displaying key performance indicators (KPI) or other information to users of a GUI. In addition, the GUI elements may summarize relative energy use and intensity across various plants, subplants, or the like. Other GUI elements or reports may be generated and shown based on available data that allow users to assess the results of the simulation. The user interface or report (or underlying data engine) may be configured to aggregate and categorize resource allocation and the costs associated therewith and provide the results to a user via a GUI. The GUI elements may include charts or histograms that allow the user to visually analyze the results of the simulation. An exemplary output that may be generated by reporting applications 730 is shown in FIG. 8.

Referring now to FIG. 8, several graphs 800 illustrating the operation of planning tool 700 are shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. With each iteration of the optimization process, planning tool 700 selects an optimization period (i.e., a portion of the simulation period) over which the optimization is performed. For example, planning tool 700 may select optimization period 802 for use in the first iteration. Once the optimal resource allocation 810 has been determined, planning tool 700 may select a portion 818 of resource allocation 810 to send to plant dispatch 830. Portion 818 may be the first b time steps of resource allocation 810. Planning tool 700 may shift the optimization period 802 forward in time, resulting in optimization period 804. The amount by which the prediction window is shifted may correspond to the duration of time steps b.

Planning tool 700 may repeat the optimization process for optimization period 804 to determine the optimal resource allocation 812. Planning tool 700 may select a portion 820 of resource allocation 812 to send to plant dispatch 830. Portion 820 may be the first b time steps of resource allocation 812. Planning tool 700 may then shift the prediction window forward in time, resulting in optimization period 806. This process may be repeated for each subsequent optimization period (e.g., optimization periods 806, 808, etc.) to generate updated resource allocations (e.g., resource allocations 814, 816, etc.) and to select portions of each resource allocation (e.g., portions 822, 824) to send to plant dispatch 830. Plant dispatch 830 includes the first b time steps 818-824 from each of optimization periods 802-808. Once the optimal resource allocation is compiled for the entire simulation period, the results may be sent to reporting applications 730, results database 728, and/or client device 722, as described with reference to FIG. 7.

Asset Allocator

Referring now to FIG. 9, a block diagram illustrating asset allocator 402 in greater detail is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Asset allocator 402 may be configured to control the distribution, production, storage, and usage of resources in a central plant. As discussed above, asset allocator 402 can be configured to minimize the economic cost (or maximize the economic value) of operating a central plant over the duration of the optimization period. The economic cost may be defined by a cost function J(x) that expresses economic cost as a function of the control decisions made by asset allocator 402. The cost function J(x) may account for the cost of resources purchased from sources 410, as well as the revenue generated by selling resources to resource purchasers 441 or energy grid 442 or participating in incentive programs.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 performs an optimization process determine an optimal set of control decisions for each time step within an optimization period. The control decisions may include, for example, an optimal amount of each resource to purchase from sources 410, an optimal amount of each resource to produce or convert using subplants 420, an optimal amount of each resource to store or remove from storage 430, an optimal amount of each resource to sell to resources purchasers 441 or energy grid 440, and/or an optimal amount of each resource to provide to other sinks 440. In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 is configured to optimally dispatch all campus energy assets in order to meet the requested heating, cooling, and electrical loads of the campus for each time step within the optimization period.

Throughout this disclosure, asset allocator 402 is described as actively identifying or defining various items (e.g., sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, sinks 440, operational domains, etc.). However, it should be understood that asset allocator 402 can also, or alternatively, receive such items as inputs. For example, the existence of such items can be defined by a user (e.g., via a user interface) or any other data source (e.g., another algorithm, an external system or process, etc.). Asset allocator 402 can be configured to identify which of these items have been defined or identified and can generate an appropriate cost function and optimization constraints based on the existence of these items. It should be understood that the acts of identifying or defining these items can include asset allocator 402 identifying, detecting, receiving, or otherwise obtaining a predefined item an input.

Optimization Framework

Asset allocator 402 is shown to include an optimization framework module 902. Optimization framework module 902 can be configured to define an optimization framework for the optimization problem solved by asset allocator 402. In some embodiments, optimization framework module 902 defines the optimization problem as a mixed integer linear program (MILP). The MILP framework provides several advantages over the linear programming framework used in previous systems. For example, the MILP framework can account for minimum turndowns on equipment, can ensure that the high level optimization problem computes a point on the subplant curve for heat recovery chillers, and can impose logical constraints on the optimization problem to compensate for poor mechanical design and/or design inefficiencies.

In some embodiments, the MILP created by optimization framework module 902 has the following form:

${\min\limits_{x,z}\mspace{14mu}{c_{x}^{T}x}} + {c_{z}^{T}z}$

subject to the following constraints:

A _(x) x+A _(z) z≤b

H _(x) x+H _(z) z=g

z=integer

where x∈

^(N) ^(x) is a vector of the continuous decision variables, z∈

^(n) ^(z) is a vector of the integer decision variables, c_(x) and c_(z) are the respective cost vectors for the continuous decision variables and integer decision variables, A_(x), A_(z), and b are the matrices and vector that describe the inequality constraints, and H_(x), H_(z), and g are the matrices and vector that describe the equality constraints.

Optimization Problem Construction

Still referring to FIG. 9, asset allocator 402 is shown to include an optimization problem constructor 910. Optimization problem constructor 910 can be configured to construct the high level (i.e., asset allocation) optimization problem solved by asset allocator 402. In some embodiments, the high level optimization problem includes one or more of the elements of asset allocation system 400. For example, the optimization problem can include sinks 440, sources 410, subplants 420, and storage 430, as described with reference to FIG. 4. In some embodiments, the high level optimization problem includes airside units, which can be considered a type of energy storage in the mass of the building. The optimization problem may include site-specific constraints that can be added to compensate for mechanical design deficiencies.

In some embodiments, the optimization problem generated by optimization problem constructor 910 includes a set of links between sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, sinks 440, or other elements of the optimization problem. For example, the high level optimization problem can be viewed as a directed graph, as shown in FIGS. 5A-5B. The nodes of the directed graph can include sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and sinks 440. The set of links can define the connections between the nodes, the cost of the connections between nodes (e.g., distribution costs), the efficiency of each connection, and the connections between site-specific constraints.

In some embodiments, the optimization problem generated by optimization problem constructor 910 includes an objective function. The objective function can include the sum of predicted utility usage costs over the horizon (i.e., the optimization period), the predicted demand charges, the total predicted incentive revenue over the prediction horizon, the sum of the predicted distribution costs, the sum of penalties on unmet and overmet loads over the prediction horizon, and/or the sum of the rate of change penalties over the prediction horizon (i.e., delta load penalties). All of these terms may add to the total cost, with the exception of the total predicted incentive revenue. The predicted incentive revenue may subtract from the total cost. For example, the objective function generated by optimization problem constructor 910 may have the following form:

${J(x)} = {{\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{h}\;\left( {{Source}\mspace{14mu}{Usage}\mspace{14mu}{Cost}} \right)_{k}} + \left( {{Total}\mspace{14mu}{Demand}\mspace{14mu}{Charges}} \right) - \left( {{Total}\mspace{14mu}{Incentives}} \right) + {\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{h}\;\left( {{Distribution}\mspace{14mu}{Cost}} \right)_{k}} + {\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{h}\;\left( {{Unmet}\text{/}{Overmet}\mspace{14mu}{Load}\mspace{14mu}{Penalties}} \right)_{k}} + {\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{h}\;\left( {{Rate}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{Change}\mspace{14mu}{Penalties}} \right)_{k}}}$

where the index k denotes a time step in the optimization period and h is the total number of time steps in the optimization period.

In some embodiments, the optimization problem generated by optimization problem constructor 910 includes a set of constraints. The set of constraints can include resource balance constraints (e.g., hot water balance, chilled water balance, electricity balance, etc.), operational domain constraints for each of subplants 420, state of charge (SOC) and storage capacity constraints for each of storage 430, decision variable constraints (e.g., subplant capacity constraints, charge and discharge of storage constraints, and storage capacity constraints), demand/peak usage constraints, auxiliary constraints, and any site specific or commissioned constraints. In some embodiments, the operational domain constraints are generalized versions of the subplant curves. The operational domain constraints can be generated by operational domain module 904 (described in greater detail below). The decision variable constraints may be box constraints of the form x_(lb)≤x≤x_(ub), where x is a decision variable and x_(lb) and x_(ub) are the lower and upper bound for the decision variable x.

The optimization problem generated by optimization problem constructor 910 can be considered a finite-horizon optimal control problem. The optimization problem may take the form:

minimize J(x)

subject to resource balances, operational domains for subplants 420 (e.g., subplant curves), constraints to predict the SOC of storage 430, storage capacity constraints, subplant/storage box constraints (e.g., capacity constraints and discharge/charge rate constraints), demand/peak usage constraints, auxiliary constraints for rate of change variables, auxiliary constraints for demand charges, and site specific constraints.

In some embodiments, optimization problem constructor 910 applies an inventory balance constraint to each resource. One side of the inventory balance constraint for a given resource may include the total amount of the resource purchased from all sources 410, the total amount of the resource produced by all of subplants 420, the total amount of the resource discharged from storage 430 (negative values indicate charging storage 430), and unmet load. The other side of the inventory balance for the resource may include the total amount of the resource requested/predicted (uncontrolled load), carryover from the previous time step, the total amount of the resource consumed by all subplants 420 and airside units, overmet load, and the total amount of the resource sold. For example, the inventory balance for a resource may have the form:

${{\sum\limits_{i \in {\{{Sources}\}}}\left( {{Purchased}\mspace{14mu}{Resource}} \right)_{i}} + {\sum\limits_{j \in {\{{Subplants}\}}}\left( {{Produced}\mspace{14mu}{Resource}} \right)_{j}} + {\sum\limits_{k \in {\{{Storage}\}}}\left( {{Discharged}\mspace{14mu}{Storage}} \right)_{k}} + {{Unmet}\mspace{14mu}{Load}}} = {{{Requested}\mspace{14mu}{Load}} + {Carryover} + {\sum\limits_{j \in {\{{Subplants}\}}}{\left( {{Consumed}\mspace{14mu}{Resource}} \right)_{j}{\sum\limits_{l \in {\{{{Airside}\mspace{14mu}{Units}}\}}}\left( {{Consumed}\mspace{14mu}{Resource}} \right)_{l}}}} + {{Overmet}\mspace{14mu}{Load}} + {{Resource}\mspace{14mu}{Sold}}}$

Optimization problem constructor 910 may require this resource balance to be satisfied for each resource at each time step of the optimization period. Together the unmet and overmet load capture the accumulation of a resource. Negative accumulation (unmet load) are distinguished from positive accumulation (overmet load) because typically, overmet loads are not included in the resource balance. Even though unmet and overmet loads are listed separately, at most one of the two may be non-zero. The amount of carryover may be the amount of unmet/overmet load from the previous time step (described in greater detail below). The requested load may be determined by load/rate predictor 622 and provided as an input to the high level optimization problem.

Throughout this disclosure, the high level/asset allocator optimization problem or high level/asset allocator problem refers to the general optimization problem constructed by optimization problem constructor 910. A high level problem instance refers to a realization of the high level problem provided the input data and parameters. The high level optimization/asset allocation algorithm refers to the entire set of steps needed to solve a high level problem instance (i.e., encapsulates both the set of mathematical operations and the implementation or software design required to setup and solve a high level problem instance. Finally, a high level problem element or high level element refers to any of the elements of the high level problem including sinks 440, sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, or airside unit.

Element Models

Still referring to FIG. 9, asset allocator 402 is shown to include element models 930. Element models 930 may store definitions and/or models for various elements of the high level optimization problem. For example, element models 930 are shown to include sink models 932, source models 934, subplant models 936, storage models 938, and element links 940. In some embodiments, element models 930 include data objects that define various attributes or properties of sinks 440, sources 410, subplants 420, and storage 430 (e.g., using object-oriented programming).

For example, source models 934 may define the type of resource provided by each of sources 410, a cost of each resource, demand charges associated with the consumption of the resource, a maximum rate at which the resource can be purchased from each of sources 410, and other attributes of sources 410. Similarly, subplant models 936 may define the input resources of each subplant 420, the output resources of each subplant 420, relationships between the input and output variables of each subplant 420 (i.e., the operational domain of each subplant 420), and optimization constraints associated with each of subplants 420. Each of element models 930 are described in greater detail below.

Sink Models

Element models 930 are shown to include sink models 932. Sink models 932 may store models for each of sinks 440. As described above, sinks 440 may include resource consumers or requested loads. Some examples are the campus thermal loads and campus electricity usage. The predicted consumption of a sink 440 over the optimization period can be supplied as an input to asset allocator 402 and/or computed by load/rate predictor 622. Sink models 932 may store the predicted consumption over the optimization period for each of sinks 440. Sink models 932 may also store any unmet/overmet load for each of sinks 440, carryover from the previous time steps, and any incentives earned by supplying each of sinks 440 (e.g., for sinks such as an energy purchasers or an energy grid).

Carryover can be defined as the amount of unmet or overmet load for a particular resource from the previous time step. In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 determines the carryover by adding the entire unmet load for a particular resource in one time step to the requested load for the resource at the next time step. However, calculating the carryover in this manner may not always be appropriate since the carryover may grow over time. As an example, consider an unmet chilled water load. If there are several time steps where the chilled water load is not met, the buildings supplied by the load will heat up. Due to this increase in building temperature, the amount of chilled water load required to decrease the building temperature to the set-point is not a linearly increasing function of the sum of the unmet load over the past time steps because the building temperature will begin approaching the ambient temperature.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 adds a forgetting factor to the carryover. For example, asset allocator 402 can calculate the carryover for each time step using the following equation:

carryover_(j+1)=γ_(j)·unmet/overmet_(j)

where unmet/overmet_(j) is the amount of unmet and/or overmet load at time step j, carryover_(j+1) is the carryover added to the right-hand side of the inventory balance at the next time step j+1, and γ_(j)∈[0,1] is the forgetting factor. Selecting γ_(j)=0 corresponds to case where no unmet/overmet load is carried over to the next time step, whereas selecting γ_(j)=1 corresponds to case where all unmet/overmet load is carried over to the next time step. An intermediate selection of γ_(j)(i.e., 0≤γ_(j)≤1) corresponds to the case where some, but not all, of the unmet/overmet load is carried over. For the case of a chilled water system, the choice of γ_(j) may depend on the plant itself and can be determined using the amount of unmet load that actually stored in the water (temperature would increase above the setpoint) when an unmet load occurs.

Source Models

Still referring to FIG. 9, element models 930 are shown to include source models 934. Source models 934 may store models for each of sources 410. As described above, sources 410 may include utilities or markets where resources may be purchased. Source models 934 may store a price per unit of a resource purchased from each of sources 410 (e.g., $/kWh of electricity, $/liter of water, etc.). This cost can be included as a direct cost associated with resource usage in the cost function. In some embodiments, source models 934 store costs associated with demand charges and demand constraints, incentive programs (e.g., frequency response and economic demand response) and/or sell back programs for one or more of sources 410.

In some embodiments, the cost function J(x) includes a demand charge based on peak electrical usage during a demand charge period (e.g., during a month). This demand charge may be based on the maximum rate of electricity usage at any time in the demand charge period. There are several other types of demand charges besides the anytime monthly demand charge for electricity including, for example, time-of-day monthly and yearlong ratchets. Some or all of these demand charges can be added to the cost function depending on the particular types of demand charges imposed by sources 410. In some embodiments, demand charges are defined as follows:

${wc}\mspace{14mu}{\max\limits_{i \in T_{demand}}\mspace{14mu}\left\{ x_{i} \right\}}$

where x_(i) represents the resource purchase at time step i of the optimization period, c>0 is the demand charge rate, w is a (potentially time-varying) weight applied to the demand charge term to address any discrepancies between the optimization period and the time window over which the demand charge is applied, and T_(demand)⊆{1, . . . , h} is the subinterval of the optimization period to which the demand charge is applied. Source models 934 can store values for some or all of the parameters that define the demand charges and the demand charge periods.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 accounts for demand charges within a linear programming framework by introducing an auxiliary continuous variable. This technique is described in greater detail with reference to demand charge module 906. While this type of term may readily be cast into a linear programming framework, it can be difficult to determine the weighting coefficient w when the demand charge period is different from the optimization period. Nevertheless, through a judicious choice of the two adjustable parameters for demand charges (i.e., the weighting coefficient w and the initial value of the auxiliary demand variable), other types of demand charges may be included in the high level optimization problem.

In some embodiments, source models 934 store parameters of various incentive programs offered by sources 410. For example, the source definition 934 for an electric utility may define a capability clearing price, a performance clearing price, a regulation award, or other parameters that define the benefits (e.g., potential revenue) of participating in a frequency regulation program. In some embodiments, source models 934 define a decision variable in the optimization problem that accounts for the capacity of a battery reserved for frequency regulation. This variable effectively reduces the capacity of the battery that is available for priced-based demand response. Depending on the complexity of the decision, source models 934 may also define a decision variable that indicates whether to participate in the incentive program. In asset allocator 402, storage capacity may be reserved for participation in incentive programs. Low level optimizer 634 can then be used to control the reserved capacity that is charged/discharged for the incentive program (e.g., frequency response control).

In some embodiments, source models 934 store pricing information for the resources sold by sources 410. The pricing information can include time-varying pricing information, progressive or regressive resource prices (e.g., prices that depend on the amount of the resource purchased), or other types of pricing structures. Progressive and regressive resource prices may readily be incorporated into the optimization problem by leveraging the set of computational operations introduced by the operational domain. In the case of either a progressive rate that is a discontinuous function of the usage or for any regressive rate, additional binary variables can be introduced into the optimization problem to properly describe both of these rates. For progressive rates that are continuous functions of the usage, no binary variables are needed because one may apply a similar technique as that used for imposing demand charges.

Referring now to FIG. 10, a graph 1000 depicting a progressive rate structure for a resource is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. The cost per unit of the resource purchased can be described by the following continuous function:

${Cost} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} {{{p_{1}u} + b_{1}},} & {{{{if}\mspace{14mu} u} \in \left\lbrack {0,u_{1}} \right\rbrack}\mspace{11mu}} \\ {{{p_{2}u} + b_{2}},} & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} u} \in \left\lbrack {u_{1},u_{2}} \right\rbrack} \\ {{{p_{3}u} + b_{3}},} & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} u} \in \left\lbrack {u_{2},u_{3}} \right\rbrack} \end{matrix} \right.$

where p_(i) is the price of the ith interval, b_(i) is the offset of the ith interval, u is the amount of the resource purchased, and p_(i)u_(i)+b_(i)=p_(i+1)u_(i)+b_(i) for i=1, 2. Although the rate depicted in graph 1000 represents a cost, negative prices may be used to account for profits earned by selling back resources. Source models 934 can store values for some of all of these parameters in order to fully define the cost of resource purchases and/or the revenue generated from resource sales.

In the cost function J(x), the following term can be used to describe progressive rates:

$\max\limits_{i \in {\{{1,2,3}\}}}\mspace{14mu}\left\{ {{p_{i}u} + b_{i}} \right\}$

Since the goal is to minimize cost, this term can be equivalently described in the optimization problem by introducing an auxiliary continuous variable C and the following constraints:

C≥0

p ₁ u+b ₁ ≤C

p ₂ u+b ₂ ≤C

p ₂ u+b ₂ ≤C

where C is the auxiliary variable that is equal to the cost of the resource. Source models 934 can define these constraints in order to enable progressive rate structures in the optimization problem.

In some embodiments, source models 934 stores definitions of any fixed costs associated with resource purchases from each of sources 410. These costs can be captured within the MILP framework. For example, let v∈{0,1} represent whether a source 410 is being utilized (v=0 means the source 410 is not used and v=1 means the source 410 is used) and let u∈[0, u_(max)] be the source usage where u_(max) represents the maximum usage. If the maximum usage is not known, u_(max) may be any arbitrarily large number that satisfies u<u_(max). Then, the following two constraints ensure that the binary variable v is zero when u=1 and is one when u>0:

u−u _(max) v≤0

u≥0

Asset allocator 402 can add the term c_(fixed)v to the cost function to account for fixed costs associated with each of sources 410, where c_(fixed) is the fixed cost. Source models 934 can define these constraints and terms in order to account for fixed costs associated with sources 410.

Subplant Models

Referring again to FIG. 9, element models 930 are shown to include subplant models 936. Subplant models 936 may store models for each of subplants 420. As discussed above, subplants 420 are the main assets of a central plant. Subplants 420 can be configured to convert resource types, making it possible to balance requested loads from the building or campus using resources purchased from sources 410. This general definition allows for a diverse set of central plant configurations and equipment types as well as varying degrees of subplant modeling fidelity and resolution.

In some embodiments, subplant models 936 identify each of subplants 420 as well as the optimization variables associated with each subplant. The optimization variables of a subplant can include the resources consumed, the resources produced, intrinsic variables, and extrinsic variables. Intrinsic variables may be internal to the optimization formulation and can include any auxiliary variables used to formulate the optimization problem. Extrinsic variables may be variables that are shared among subplants (e.g., condenser water temperature).

In some embodiments, subplant models 936 describe the relationships between the optimization variables of each subplant. For example, subplant models 936 can include subplant curves that define the output resource production of a subplant as a function of one or more input resources provided to the subplant. In some embodiments, operational domains are used to describe the relationship between the subplant variables. Mathematically, an operational domain is a union of a collection of polytopes in an n-dimensional (real) space that describe the admissible set of variables of a high level element. Operational domains are described in greater detail below.

In some embodiments, subplant models 936 store subplant constraints for each of subplants 420. Subplant constraints may be written in the following general form:

A _(x,j) x _(j) +A _(z,j) z _(j) ≤b _(j)

H _(x,j) x _(j) +H _(z,j) z _(j) =g _(j)

x _(lb,j) ≤x _(j) <x _(ub,j)

z _(lb,j) <z _(j) ≤z _(ub,j)

z _(j)=integer

for all j where j is an index representing the jth subplant, x_(j) denotes the continuous variables associated with the jth subplant (e.g., resource variables and auxiliary optimization variables), and z_(j) denotes the integer variables associated with the jth subplant (e.g., auxiliary binary optimization variables). The vectors x_(lb,j), x_(ub,j), z_(lb,j), and z_(ub,j) represent the box (bound) constraints on the decision variables. The matrices A_(x,j), A_(z,j), H_(x,j), and H_(z,j) and the vectors b_(j) and g_(j) are associated with the inequality constraints and the equality constraints for the jth subplant.

In some embodiments, subplant models 936 store the input data used to generate the subplant constraints. Such input data may include sampled data points of the high level subplant curve/operational domain. For example, for chiller subplant 422, this data may include several points sampled from the subplant curve 1300 (shown in FIG. 13). When implemented as part of an online operational tool (shown in FIG. 6), the high level subplant operational domain can be sampled by querying low level optimizer 634 at several requested production amounts. When implemented as part of an offline planning tool (shown in FIG. 7), the sampled data may be user-specified efficiency and capacity data.

Storage Models

Referring again to FIG. 9, element models 930 are shown to include storage models 938. Storage models 938 may store models for each of storage 430. Storage models 938 can define the types of resources stored by each of storage 430, as well as storage constraints that limit the state-of-charge (e.g., maximum charge level) and/or the rates at which each storage 430 can be charged or discharged. In some embodiments, the current level or capacity of storage 430 is quantified by the state-of-charge (SOC), which can be denoted by ϕ where ϕ=0 corresponds to empty and ϕ=1 corresponds to full. To describe the SOC as a function of the charge rate or discharge rate, a dynamic model can be stored as part of storage models 938. The dynamic model may have the form:

ϕ(k+1)=Aϕ(k)+Bu(k)

where ϕ(k) is the predicted state of charge at time step k of the optimization period, u(k) is the charge/discharge rate at time step k, and A and B are coefficients that account for dissipation of energy from storage 430. In some embodiments, A and B are time-varying coefficients. Accordingly, the dynamic model may have the form:

ϕ(k+1)=A(k)ϕ(k)+B(k)u(k)

where A(k) and B(k) are coefficients that vary as a function of the time step k.

Asset allocator 402 can be configured to add constraints based on the operational domain of storage 430. In some embodiments, the constraints link decision variables adjacent in time as defined by the dynamic model. For example, the constraints may link the decision variables ϕ(k+1) at time step k+1 to the decision variables ϕ(k) and u(k) at time step k. In some embodiments, the constraints link the SOC of storage 430 to the charge/discharge rate. Some or all of these constraints may be defined by the dynamic model and may depend on the operational domain of storage 430.

In some embodiments, storage models 938 store optimization constraints for each of storage 430. Storage constraints may be written in the following general form:

A _(x,k) x _(k) +A _(z,k) z _(k) ≤b _(k)

H _(x,k) x _(k) +H _(z,k) z _(k) =g _(k)

x _(lb,k) ≤x _(k) ≤x _(ub,k)

z _(lb,k) ≤z _(k) ≤z _(ub,k)

z _(k)=integer

for all k where k is an index representing the kth storage device, x_(k) denotes the continuous variables associated with the kth storage device (e.g., resource variables and auxiliary optimization variables), and z_(k) denotes the integer variables associated with the kth storage device (e.g., auxiliary binary optimization variables). The vectors x_(lb,k), x_(ub,k), z_(lb,k), and z_(ub,k) represent the box (bound) constraints on the decision variables. The matrices A_(x,k), A_(z,k), H_(x,k), and H_(z,k) and the vectors b_(k) and g_(k) are associated with the inequality constraints and the equality constraints for the kth storage device.

The optimization constraints may ensure that the predicted SOC for each of storage 430 is maintained between a minimum SOC Q_(min) and a maximum SOC Q_(max). The optimization constraints may also ensure that the charge/discharge rate is maintained between a minimum charge rate Q_(min) and maximum charge rate Q_(max). In some embodiments, the optimization constraints include terminal constraints imposed on the SOC at the end of the optimization period. For example, the optimization constraints can ensure that one or more of storage 430 are full at the end of the optimization period (i.e., “tank forced full” constraints).

In some embodiments, storage models 938 store mixed constraints for each of storage 430. Mixed constraints may be needed in the case that the operational domain of storage 430 is similar to that shown in FIG. 11. FIG. 11 is a graph 1100 of an example operational domain for a thermal energy storage tank or thermal energy storage subplant (e.g., TES subplants 431-432). Graph 1100 illustrates a scenario in which the discharge rate is limited to less than a maximum discharge rate at low SOCs, whereas the charge rate is limited to less than a maximum charge rate at high SOCs. In a thermal energy storage tank, the constraints on the discharge rate at low SOCs may be due to mixing between layers of the tank. For TES subplants 431-432 and the TES tanks that form TES subplants 431-432, the SOC represents the fraction of the current tank level or:

$\phi = \frac{Q - Q_{\min}}{Q_{\max} - Q_{\min}}$

where Q is the current tank level, Q_(min) is the minimum tank level, Q_(max) is the maximum tank level, and ϕ∈[0,1] is the SOC. Since the maximum rate of discharge or charge may depend on the SOC at low or high SOC, SOC dependent bounds on the maximum rate of discharge or charge may be included.

In some embodiments, storage models 938 store SOC models for each of storage 430. The SOC model for a thermal energy storage tank may be an integrator model given by:

${\phi\left( {k + 1} \right)} = {{\phi(k)} - {\delta\; t_{s}\frac{\overset{.}{Q}(k)}{Q_{\max} - Q_{\min}}}}$

where {dot over (Q)}(k) is the charge/discharge rate and δt_(s). Positive values of {dot over (Q)}(k) represent discharging, whereas negative values of {dot over (Q)}(k) represent charging. The mixed constraints depicted in FIG. 11 can be accounted for as follows:

a _(mixed)ϕ(k)+b _(mixed) ≤{dot over (Q)}(k)

0≤ϕ(k)≤1

−{dot over (Q)} _(charge,max) ≤{dot over (Q)}(k)<{dot over (Q)} _(discharge,max)

where a_(mixed) and b_(mixed) are vectors of the same dimension that describe any mixed linear inequality constraints (e.g., constraints that depend on both the SOC and the discharge/charge rate). The second constraint (i.e., 0≤ϕ(k)≤1) is the constraint on the SOC. The last constraint limits the rate of charging and discharging within bound.

In some embodiments, storage models 938 include models that treat the air within the building and/or the building mass as a form of energy storage. However, one of the key differentiators between an airside mass and storage 430 is that additional care must be taken to ensure feasibility of the optimization problem (e.g., soft constraining of the state constraints). Nevertheless, airside optimization units share many common features and mathematical operations as storage 430. In some embodiments, a state-space representation of airside dynamics can be used to describe the predicted evolution of airside optimization units (e.g., building mass). Such a model may have the form:

x(k+1)=A _(x)(k)+Bu(k)

where x(k) is the airside optimization unit state vector, u(k) is the airside optimization unit input vector, and A and B are the system matrices. In general, an airside optimization unit or the control volume that the dynamic model describes may represent a region (e.g., multiple HVAC zones served by the same air handling unit) or an aggregate of several regions (e.g., an entire building).

Element Links

Still referring to FIG. 9, element models 930 are shown to include element links 940. In some embodiments, element links 940 define the connections between sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and sinks 440. These links 940 are shown as lines connecting various elements in plant resource diagrams 500 and 550. For example, element links 940 may define which of sources 410 provide resources to each of subplants 420, which subplants 420 are connected to which storage 430, and which subplants 420 and/or storage 430 provide resources to each of sinks 440. Element links 940 may contain the data and methods needed to create and solve an instance of the high level optimization problem.

In some embodiments, element links 940 link sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and sinks 440 (i.e., the high level problem elements) using a netlist of connections between high level problem elements. The information provided by element links 940 may allow multiple subplants 420, storage 430, sinks 440, and sources of the same type to be defined. Rather than assuming that all elements contribute to and draw from a common pool of each resource, element links 940 can be used to specify the particular connections between elements. Accordingly, multiple resources of the same type can be defined such that a first subset of subplants 420 produce a first resource of a given type (e.g., Chilled Water A), whereas a second subset of subplants 420 produce a second resource of the same type (e.g., Chilled Water B). Such a configuration is shown in FIG. 5B. Advantageously, element links 940 can be used to build constraints that reflect the actual physical connections between equipment in a central plant.

In some embodiments, element links 940 are used to account for the distribution costs of resources between elements of asset allocation system 400 (e.g., from sources 410 to subplants 420, from subplants 420 to sinks 440, etc.) and/or the distribution efficiency of each connection. In some cases it may be necessary to include costs for delivering the resource along a connection, or an efficiency of the transportation (amount or percentage of resources received on the other side of the connection). Accounting for distribution costs and/or distribution efficiency may affect the result of the optimization in some situations. For example, consider a first chiller subplant 420 that is highly efficient and can provide a chilled water resource to sinks 440, but it costs significantly more (e.g., due to pumping costs etc.) to transport the resource from the first chiller subplant 420 rather than from a second chiller subplant 420. In that scenario, asset allocator 402 may determine that the first chiller subplant 420 should be used only if necessary. Additionally, energy could be lost during transportation along a particular connection (e.g., chilled water temperature may increase over a long pipe). This could be described as an efficiency of the connection.

The resource balance constraint can be modified to account for distribution efficiency as follows:

${{{\sum\limits_{sources}{\alpha_{{source},{resource}}{purchase}_{{resource},{time}}}} + {\sum\limits_{subplants}{\alpha_{{subplant},{resource}}{{produces}\left( {x_{{internal},{time}},x_{{external},{time}},v_{{uncontrolled},{time}}} \right)}}} - {\sum\limits_{subplants}{\frac{1}{\alpha_{{source},{resource}}}{{consumes}\left( {x_{{internal},{time}},x_{{external},{time}},v_{{uncontrolled},{time}}} \right)}}} + {\sum\limits_{storages}{{discharges}_{resource}\left( {x_{{internal},{time}},x_{{external},{time}}} \right)}} - {\frac{1}{\alpha_{{sink},{resource}}}{\sum\limits_{sinks}{requests}_{resource}}}} = {0\mspace{14mu}{\forall{resources}}}},{\forall{{time} \in {horizon}}}$

where the α terms are loss factors with values between zero and one.

The cost function can be modified to account for transportation costs as follows:

${J(x)} = {{\sum\limits_{sources}{\sum\limits_{horizon}{{cost}\left( {{purchases}_{{resource},{time}},{time}} \right)}}} + \cdots + {\sum\limits_{connection}{\lambda_{connection}{resource}_{connection}}}}$

where λ_(connection) is the cost per unit resource transported along a particular connection and resource_(connection) is the amount of the resource transported along the connection. Accordingly, the final term of the cost function accounts for transportation costs along each of the connections or links between elements in asset allocation system 400.

Demand Charges

Still referring to FIG. 9, asset allocator 402 is shown to include a demand charge module 906. Demand charge module 906 can be configured to modify the cost function J(x) and the optimization constraints to account for one or more demand charges. As previously described, demand charges are costs imposed by sources 410 based on the peak consumption of a resource from sources 410 during various demand charge periods (i.e., the peak amount of the resource purchased from the utility during any time step of the applicable demand charge period). For example, an electric utility may define one or more demand charge periods and may impose a separate demand charge based on the peak electric consumption during each demand charge period. Electric energy storage can help reduce peak consumption by storing electricity in a battery when energy consumption is low and discharging the stored electricity from the battery when energy consumption is high, thereby reducing peak electricity purchased from the utility during any time step of the demand charge period.

In some instances, one or more of the resources purchased from 410 are subject to a demand charge or multiple demand charges. There are many types of potential demand charges as there are different types of energy rate structures. The most common energy rate structures are constant pricing, time of use (TOU), and real time pricing (RTP). Each demand charge may be associated with a demand charge period during which the demand charge is active. Demand charge periods can overlap partially or completely with each other and/or with the optimization period. Demand charge periods can include relatively long periods (e.g., monthly, seasonal, annual, etc.) or relatively short periods (e.g., days, hours, etc.). Each of these periods can be divided into several sub-periods including off-peak, partial-peak, and/or on-peak. Some demand charge periods are continuous (e.g., beginning Jan. 1, 2017 and ending Jan. 31, 2017), whereas other demand charge periods are non-continuous (e.g., from 11:00 AM-1:00 PM each day of the month).

Over a given optimization period, some demand charges may be active during some time steps that occur within the optimization period and inactive during other time steps that occur during the optimization period. Some demand charges may be active over all the time steps that occur within the optimization period. Some demand charges may apply to some time steps that occur during the optimization period and other time steps that occur outside the optimization period (e.g., before or after the optimization period). In some embodiments, the durations of the demand charge periods are significantly different from the duration of the optimization period.

Advantageously, demand charge module 906 may be configured to account for demand charges in the high level optimization process performed by asset allocator 402. In some embodiments, demand charge module 906 incorporates demand charges into the optimization problem and the cost function J(x) using demand charge masks and demand charge rate weighting factors. Each demand charge mask may correspond to a particular demand charge and may indicate the time steps during which the corresponding demand charge is active and/or the time steps during which the demand charge is inactive. Each rate weighting factor may also correspond to a particular demand charge and may scale the corresponding demand charge rate to the time scale of the optimization period.

The demand charge term of the cost function J(x) can be expressed as:

${J(x)} = {\cdots{\sum\limits_{s \in {sources}}{\sum\limits_{q \in {demands}_{s}}{w_{{demand},s,q}r_{{demand},s,q}\mspace{14mu}{\max\limits_{i \in {demand}_{s,q}}\mspace{14mu}{\left( {purchase}_{s,i} \right)\ldots}}}}}}$

where the max( ) function selects the maximum amount of the resource purchased from source s during any time step i that occurs during the optimization period. However, the demand charge period associated with demand charge q may not cover all of the time steps that occur during the optimization period. In order to apply the demand charge q to only the time steps during which the demand charge q is active, demand charge module 906 can add a demand charge mask to the demand charge term as shown in the following equation:

${J(x)} = {\cdots{\sum\limits_{s \in {sources}}{\sum\limits_{q \in {demands}_{s}}{w_{{demand},s,q}r_{{demand},s,q}\mspace{14mu}{\max\limits_{i \in {demand}_{s,q}}\mspace{14mu}{\left( {g_{s,q,i}{purchase}_{s,i}} \right)\ldots}}}}}}$

where g_(s,q,i) is an element of the demand charge mask.

The demand charge mask may be a logical vector including an element g_(s,q,i) for each time step i that occurs during the optimization period. Each element g_(s,q,i) of the demand charge mask may include a binary value (e.g., a one or zero) that indicates whether the demand charge q for source s is active during the corresponding time step i of the optimization period. For example, the element g_(s,q,i) may have a value of one (i.e., g_(s,q,i)=1) if demand charge q is active during time step i and a value of zero (i.e., g_(s,q,i)=0) if demand charge q is inactive during time step i. An example of a demand charge mask is shown in the following equation:

g _(s,q)=[0,0,0,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,1,1]^(T)

where g_(s,q,1), g_(s,q,2), g_(s,q,3), g_(s,q,8), g_(s,q,9), and g_(s,q,10) have values of zero, whereas g_(s,q,4), g_(s,q,5), g_(s,q,6), g_(s,q,7), g_(s,q,11), and g_(s,q,12) have values of one. This indicates that the demand charge q is inactive during time steps i=1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10 (i.e., g_(s,q,i)=0 ∀i=1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10) and active during time steps i=4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12 (i.e., g_(s,q,i)=1 ∀i=4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12). Accordingly, the term g_(s,q,i)purchase_(s,i) within the max( ) function may have a value of zero for all time steps during which the demand charge q is inactive. This causes the max( ) function to select the maximum purchase from source s that occurs during only the time steps for which the demand charge q is active.

In some embodiments, demand charge module 906 calculates the weighting factor w_(demand,s,q) for each demand charge q in the cost function J(x). The weighting factor w_(demand,s,q) may be a ratio of the number of time steps the corresponding demand charge q is active during the optimization period to the number of time steps the corresponding demand charge q is active in the remaining demand charge period (if any) after the end of the optimization period. For example, demand charge module 906 can calculate the weighting factor w_(demand,s,q) using the following equation:

$w_{{demand},s,q} = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = k}^{k + h - 1}\; q_{s,q,i}}{\sum\limits_{i = {k + h}}^{{period}\_{end}}\; g_{s,q,i}}$

where the numerator is the summation of the number of time steps the demand charge q is active in the optimization period (i.e., from time step k to time step k+h−1) and the denominator is the number of time steps the demand charge q is active in the portion of the demand charge period that occurs after the optimization period (i.e., from time step k+h to the end of the demand charge period).

The following example illustrates how demand charge module 906 can incorporate multiple demand charges into the cost function J(x). In this example, a single source of electricity (e.g., an electric grid) is considered with multiple demand charges applicable to the electricity source (i.e., q=1 . . . N, where N is the total number of demand charges). The system includes a battery asset which can be allocated over the optimization period by charging or discharging the battery during various time steps. Charging the battery increases the amount of electricity purchased from the electric grid, whereas discharging the battery decreases the amount of electricity purchased from the electric grid.

Demand charge module 906 can modify the cost function J(x) to account for the N demand charges as shown in the following equation:

${J(x)} = {\cdots + {w_{d_{1}}r_{d_{1}}\mspace{14mu}{\max\limits_{i}\mspace{14mu}\left( {g_{1_{i}}\left( {{- P_{{bat}_{i}}} + {eLoad}_{i}} \right)} \right)}} + \cdots + {w_{d_{q}}r_{d_{q}}\mspace{14mu}{\max\limits_{i}\mspace{14mu}\left( {g_{q_{i}}\left( {{- P_{{bat}_{i}}} + {eLoad}_{i}} \right)} \right)}} + \cdots + {w_{d_{N}}r_{d_{N}}\mspace{14mu}{\max\limits_{i}\mspace{14mu}\left( {g_{N_{i}}\left( {{- P_{{bat}_{i}}} + {eLoad}_{i}} \right)} \right)}}}$

where the term −P_(bat) _(i) +eLoad_(i) represents the total amount of electricity purchased from the electric grid during time step i (i.e., the total electric load eLoad_(i) minus the power discharged from the battery P_(bat) _(i) ). Each demand charge q=1 . . . N can be accounted for separately in the cost function J(x) by including a separate max( ) function for each of the N demand charges. The parameter r_(d) _(q) indicates the demand charge rate associated with the qth demand charge (e.g., $/kW) and the weighting factor w_(d) _(q) indicates the weight applied to the qth demand charge.

Demand charge module 906 can augment each max( ) function with an element g_(q) _(i) of the demand charge mask for the corresponding demand charge. Each demand charge mask may be a logical vector of binary values which indicates whether the corresponding demand charge is active or inactive at each time step i of the optimization period. Accordingly, each max( ) function may select the maximum electricity purchase during only the time steps the corresponding demand charge is active. Each max( ) function can be multiplied by the corresponding demand charge rate r_(d) _(q) and the corresponding demand charge weighting factor w_(d) _(q) to determine the total demand charge resulting from the battery allocation P_(bat) over the duration of the optimization period.

In some embodiments, demand charge module 906 linearizes the demand charge terms of the cost function J(x) by introducing an auxiliary variable d_(q) for each demand charge q. In the case of the previous example, this will result in N auxiliary variables d₁ . . . d_(N) being introduced as decision variables in the cost function J(x). Demand charge module 906 can modify the cost function J(x) to include the linearized demand charge terms as shown in the following equation:

J(x)= . . . +w _(d) ₁ r _(d) ₁ d ₁ + . . . +w _(d) _(q) r _(d) _(q) d _(q) + . . . +w _(d) _(N) r _(d) _(N) d _(N)

Demand charge module 906 can impose the following constraints on the auxiliary demand charge variables d₁ . . . d_(N) to ensure that each auxiliary demand charge variable represents the maximum amount of electricity purchased from the electric utility during the applicable demand charge period:

$\begin{matrix} {d_{1} \geq {g_{1_{i}}\left( {{- P_{{bat}_{i}}} + {eLoad}_{i}} \right)}} & {{{\forall i} = {{k\mspace{14mu}\ldots\mspace{14mu} k} + h - 1}},{g_{1_{i}} \neq 0}} \\ \; & {d_{1} \geq {0\mspace{101mu}\vdots}} \\ {d_{q} \geq {g_{q_{i}}\left( {{- P_{{bat}_{i}}} + {eLoad}_{i}} \right)}} & {{{\forall i} = {{k\mspace{14mu}\ldots\mspace{14mu} k} + h - 1}},{g_{q_{i}} \neq 0}} \\ \; & {d_{q} \geq {0\mspace{101mu}\vdots}} \\ {d_{N} \geq {g_{N_{i}}\left( {{- P_{{bat}_{i}}} + {eLoad}_{i}} \right)}} & {{{\forall i} = {{k\mspace{14mu}\ldots\mspace{14mu} k} + h - 1}},{g_{N_{i}} \neq 0}} \\ \; & {{d_{N} \geq 0}\mspace{101mu}} \end{matrix}$

In some embodiments, the number of constraints corresponding to each demand charge q is dependent on how many time steps the demand charge q is active during the optimization period. For example, the number of constraints for the demand charge q may be equal to the number of non-zero elements of the demand charge mask g. Furthermore, the value of the auxiliary demand charge variable de at each iteration of the optimization may act as the lower bound of the value of the auxiliary demand charge variable de at the following iteration.

Consider the following example of a multiple demand charge structure. In this example, an electric utility imposes three monthly demand charges. The first demand charge is an all-time monthly demand charge of 15.86 $/kWh which applies to all hours within the entire month. The second demand charge is an on-peak monthly demand charge of 1.56 $/kWh which applies each day from 12:00-18:00. The third demand charge is a partial-peak monthly demand charge of 0.53 $/kWh which applies each day from 9:00-12:00 and from 18:00-22:00.

For an optimization period of one day and a time step of one hour (i.e., i=1 . . . 24), demand charge module 906 may introduce three auxiliary demand charge variables. The first auxiliary demand charge variable d₁ corresponds to the all-time monthly demand charge; the second auxiliary demand charge variable d₂ corresponds to the on-peak monthly demand charge; and the third auxiliary demand charge variable d₃ corresponds to the partial-peak monthly demand charge. Demand charge module 906 can constrain each auxiliary demand charge variable to be greater than or equal to the maximum electricity purchase during the hours the corresponding demand charge is active, using the inequality constraints described above.

Demand charge module 906 can generate a demand charge mask g_(q) for each of the three demand charges (i.e., q=1 . . . 3), where g_(q) includes an element for each time step of the optimization period (i.e., g_(q)=[g_(q) ₁ . . . g_(q) ₂₄ ]). The three demand charge masks can be defined as follows:

g ₁ _(i) =1 ∀i=1 . . . 24

g ₂ _(i) =1 ∀i=12 . . . 18

g ₃ _(i) =1 ∀i=9 . . . 12,18 . . . 22

with all other elements of the demand charge masks equal to zero. In this example, it is evident that more than one demand charge constraint will be active during the hours which overlap with multiple demand charge periods. Also, the weight of each demand charge over the optimization period can vary based on the number of hours the demand charge is active, as previously described.

In some embodiments, demand charge module 906 considers several different demand charge structures when incorporating multiple demand charges into the cost function J(x) and optimization constraints. Demand charge structures can vary from one utility to another, or the utility may offer several demand charge options. In order to incorporate the multiple demand charges within the optimization framework, a generally-applicable framework can be defined as previously described. Demand charge module 906 can translate any demand charge structure into this framework. For example, demand charge module 906 can characterize each demand charge by rates, demand charge period start, demand charge period end, and active hours. Advantageously, this allows demand charge module 906 to incorporate multiple demand charges in a generally-applicable format.

The following is another example of how demand charge module 906 can incorporate multiple demand charges into the cost function J(x). Consider, for example, monthly demand charges with all-time, on-peak, partial-peak, and off-peak. In this case, there are four demand charge structures, where each demand charge is characterized by twelve monthly rates, twelve demand charge period start (e.g., beginning of each month), twelve demand charge period end (e.g., end of each month), and hoursActive. The hoursActive is a logical vector where the hours over a year where the demand charge is active are set to one. When running the optimization over a given horizon, demand charge module 906 can implement the applicable demand charges using the hoursActive mask, the relevant period, and the corresponding rate.

In the case of an annual demand charge, demand charge module 906 can set the demand charge period start and period end to the beginning and end of a year. For the annual demand charge, demand charge module 906 can apply a single annual rate. The hoursActive demand charge mask can represent the hours during which the demand charge is active. For an annual demand charge, if there is an all-time, on-peak, partial-peak, and/or off-peak, this translates into at most four annual demand charges with the same period start and end, but different hoursActive and different rates.

In the case of a seasonal demand charge (e.g., a demand charge for which the maximum peak is determined over the indicated season period), demand charge module 906 can represent the demand charge as an annual demand charge. Demand charge module 906 can set the demand charge period start and end to the beginning and end of a year. Demand charge module 906 can set the hoursActive to one during the hours which belong to the season and to zero otherwise. For a seasonal demand charge, if there is an All-time, on-peak, partial, and/or off-peak, this translates into at most four seasonal demand charges with the same period start and end, but different hoursActive and different rates.

In the case of the average of the maximum of current month and the average of the maxima of the eleven previous months, demand charge module 906 can translate the demand charge structure into a monthly demand charge and an annual demand charge. The rate of the monthly demand charge may be half of the given monthly rate and the annual rate may be the sum of given monthly rates divided by two. These and other features of demand charge module 906 are described in greater detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/405,236 filed Jan. 12, 2017, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

Incentive Programs

Referring again to FIG. 9, asset allocator 402 is shown to include an incentive program module 908. Incentive program module 908 may modify the optimization problem to account for revenue from participating in an incentive-based demand response (IBDR) program. IBDR programs may include any type of incentive-based program that provides revenue in exchange for resources (e.g., electric power) or a reduction in a demand for such resources. For example, asset allocation system 400 may provide electric power to an energy grid or an independent service operator as part of a frequency response program (e.g., PJM frequency response) or a synchronized reserve market. In a frequency response program, a participant contracts with an electrical supplier to maintain reserve power capacity that can be supplied or removed from an energy grid by tracking a supplied signal. The participant is paid by the amount of power capacity required to maintain in reserve. In other types of IBDR programs, asset allocation system 400 may reduce its demand for resources from a utility as part of a load shedding program. It is contemplated that asset allocation system 400 may participate in any number and/or type of IBDR programs.

In some embodiments, incentive program module 908 modifies the cost function J(x) to include revenue generated from participating in an economic load demand response (ELDR) program. ELDR is a type of IBDR program and similar to frequency regulation. In ELDR, the objective is to maximize the revenue generated by the program, while using the battery to participate in other programs and to perform demand management and energy cost reduction. To account for ELDR program participation, incentive program module 908 can modify the cost function J(x) to include the following term:

$\min\limits_{b_{i},P_{{bat}_{i}}}\left( {- {\sum\limits_{i = k}^{k + h - 1}\;{b_{i}{r_{{ELDR}_{i}}\left( {{adjCBL}_{i} - \left( {{eLoad}_{i} - P_{{bat}_{i}}} \right)} \right)}}}} \right)$

where b_(i) is a binary decision variable indicating whether to participate in the ELDR program during time step i, r_(ELDR) _(i) is the ELDR incentive rate at which participation is compensated, and adjCBL_(i) is the symmetric additive adjustment (SAA) on the baseline load. The previous expression can be rewritten as:

$\min\limits_{b_{i},P_{{bat}_{i}}}\left( {- {\sum\limits_{i = k}^{k + h - 1}\;{b_{i}{r_{{ELDR}_{i}}\left( {{\sum\limits_{l = 1}^{4}\;\frac{e_{li}}{4}} + {\sum\limits_{p = {m - 4}}^{m - 2}\;{\frac{1}{3}\left( {{eLoad}_{p} - P_{{bat}_{p}} - {\sum\limits_{l = 1}^{4}\;\frac{e_{lp}}{4}}} \right)}} - \left( {{eLoad}_{i} - P_{{bat}_{i}}} \right)} \right)}}}} \right)$

where e_(li) and e_(lp) are the electric loads at the lth hour of the operating day.

In some embodiments, incentive program module 908 handles the integration of ELDR into the optimization problem as a bilinear problem with two multiplicative decision variables. In order to linearize the cost function J(x) and customize the ELDR problem to the optimization framework, several assumptions may be made. For example, incentive program module 908 can assume that ELDR participation is only in the real-time market, balancing operating reserve charges and make whole payments are ignored, day-ahead prices are used over the horizon, real-time prices are used in calculating the total revenue from ELDR after the decisions are made by the optimization algorithm, and the decision to participate in ELDR is made in advance and passed to the optimization algorithm based on which the battery asset is allocated.

In some embodiments, incentive program module 908 calculates the participation vector b_(i) as follows:

$b_{i} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} 1 & {\forall{{{i\text{/}r_{{DA}_{i}}} \geq {{NBT}_{i}\mspace{14mu}{and}\mspace{14mu} i}} \in S}} \\ 0 & {{otherwise}\mspace{175mu}} \end{matrix} \right.$

where r_(DA) _(i) is the hourly day-ahead price at the ith hour, NBT_(i) is the net benefits test value corresponding to the month to which the corresponding hour belongs, and S is the set of nonevent days. Nonevent days can be determined for the year by choosing to participate every x number of days with the highest day-ahead prices out of y number of days for a given day type. This approach may ensure that there are nonevent days in the 45 days prior to a given event day when calculating the CBL for the event day.

Given these assumptions and the approach taken by incentive program module 908 to determine when to participate in ELDR, incentive program module 908 can adjust the cost function J(x) as follows:

${J(x)} = {{- {\sum\limits_{i = k}^{k + h - 1}\;{r_{e_{i}}P_{{bat}_{i}}}}} - {\sum\limits_{i = k}^{k + h - 1}\;{r_{{FR}_{i}}P_{{FR}_{i}}}} + {\sum\limits_{i = k}^{k + h - 1}\;{r_{s_{i}}s_{i}}} + {w_{d}r_{d}d} - {\sum\limits_{i = k}^{k + h - 1}\;{b_{i}{r_{{DA}_{i}}\left( {{\sum\limits_{p = {m - 4}}^{m - 2}\;{{- \frac{1}{3}}P_{{bat}_{p}}}} + P_{{bat}_{i}}} \right)}}}}$

where b_(i) and m are known over a given horizon. The resulting term corresponding to ELDR shows that the rates at the ith participation hour are doubled and those corresponding to the SAA are lowered. This means it is expected that high level optimizer 632 will tend to charge the battery during the SAA hours and discharge the battery during the participation hours. Notably, even though a given hour is set to be an ELDR participation hour, high level optimizer 632 may not decide to allocate any of the battery asset during that hour. This is due to the fact that it may be more beneficial at that instant to participate in another incentive program or to perform demand management.

To build the high level optimization problem, optimization problem constructor 910 may query the number of decision variables and constraints that each subplant 420, source 410, storage 430, and site specific constraint adds to the problem. In some embodiments, optimization problem constructor 910 creates optimization variable objects for each variable of the high level problem to help manage the flow of data. After the variable objects are created, optimization problem constructor 910 may pre-allocate the optimization matrices and vectors for the problem. Element links 940 can then be used to fill in the optimization matrices and vectors by querying each component. The constraints associated with each subplant 420 can be filled into the larger problem-wide optimization matrix and vector. Storage constraints can be added, along with demand constraints, demand charges, load balance constraints, and site-specific constraints.

Extrinsic Variables

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 is configured to optimize the use of extrinsic variables. Extrinsic variables can include controlled or uncontrolled variables that affect multiple subplants 420 (e.g., condenser water temperature, external conditions such as outside air temperature, etc.). In some embodiments, extrinsic variables affect the operational domain of multiple subplants 420. There are many methods that can be used to optimize the use of extrinsic variables. For example, consider a chiller subplant connected to a cooling tower subplant. The cooling tower subplant provides cooling for condenser water provided as an input to the chiller. Several scenarios outlining the use of extrinsic variables in this example are described below.

In a first scenario, both the chiller subplant and the tower subplant have operational domains that are not dependent on the condenser water temperatures. In this scenario, the condenser water temperature can be ignored (e.g., excluded from the set of optimization variables) since the neither of the operational domains are a function of the condenser water temperature.

In a second scenario, the chiller subplant has an operational domain that varies with the entering condenser water temperature. However, the cooling tower subplant has an operational domain that is not a function of the condenser water temperature. For example, the cooling tower subplant may have an operational domain that defines a relationship between fan power and water usage, independent from its leaving condenser water temperature or ambient air wet bulb temperature. In this case, the operational domain of the chiller subplant can be sliced (e.g., a cross section of the operational domain can be taken) at the condenser water temperature indicated at each point in the optimization period.

In a third scenario, the cooling tower subplant has an operational domain that depends on its leaving condenser water temperature. Both the entering condenser water temperature of the chiller subplant and the leaving condenser water temperature of the cooling tower subplant can be specified so the operational domain will be sliced at those particular values. In both the second scenario and the third scenario, asset allocator 402 may produce variables for the condenser water temperature. In the third scenario, asset allocator 402 may produce the variables for both the tower subplant and the chiller subplant. However, these variables will not become decision variables because they are simply specified directly

In a fourth scenario, the condenser water temperature affects the operational domains of both the cooling tower subplant and the chiller subplant. Because the condenser water temperature is not specified, it may become an optimization variable that can be optimized by asset allocator 402. In this scenario, the optimization variable is produced when the first subplant (i.e., either the chiller subplant or the cooling tower subplant) reports its optimization size. When the second subplant is queried, no additional variable is produced. Instead, asset allocator 402 may recognize the shared optimization variable as the same variable from the connection netlist.

When asset allocator 402 asks for constraints from the individual subplants 420, subplants 420 may send those constraints using local indexing. Asset allocator 402 may then disperse these constraints by making new rows in the optimization matrix, but also distributing the column to the correct columns based on its own indexing for the entire optimization problem. In this way, extrinsic variables such as condenser water temperature can be incorporated into the optimization problem in an efficient and optimal manner.

Commissioned Constraints

Some constraints may arise due to mechanical problems after the energy facility has been built. These constraints are site specific and may not be incorporated into the main code for any of the subplants or the high level problem itself. Instead, constraints may be added without software update on site during the commissioning phase of the project. Furthermore, if these additional constraints are known prior to the plant build they could be added to the design tool run. Commissioned constraints can be held by asset allocator 402 and can be added constraints to any of the ports or connections of subplants 420. Constraints can be added for the consumption, production, or extrinsic variables of a subplant.

As an example implementation, two new complex type internals can be added to the problem. These internals can store an array of constraint objects that include a dictionary to describe inequality and equality constraints, times during which the constraints are active, and the elements of the horizon the constraints affect. In some embodiments, the dictionaries have keys containing strings such as (subplantUserName).(portInternalName) and values that represent the linear portion of the constraint for that element of the constraint matrix. A special “port name” could exist to reference whether the subplant is running. A special key can be used to specify the constant part of the constraint or the right hand side. A single dictionary can describe a single linear constraint.

Operational Domains

Referring now to FIGS. 9 and 12, asset allocator 402 is shown to include an operational domain module 904. Operational domain module 904 can be configured to generate and store operational domains for various elements of the high level optimization problem. For example, operational domain module 904 can create and store operational domains for one or more of sources 410, subplants 420, storage 430, and/or sinks 440. The operational domains for subplants 420 may describe the relationship between the resources, intrinsic variables, and extrinsic variables, and constraints for the rate of change variables (delta load variables). The operational domains for sources 410 may include the constraints necessary to impose any progressive/regressive rates (other than demand charges). The operational domain for storage 430 may include the bounds on the state of charge, bounds on the rate of charge/discharge, and any mixed constraints.

In some embodiments, the operational domain is the fundamental building block used by asset allocator 402 to describe the models (e.g., optimization constraints) of each high level element. The operational domain may describe the admissible values of variables (e.g., the inputs and the outputs of the model) as well as the relationships between variables. Mathematically, the operational domain is a union of a collection of polytopes in an n-dimensional real space. Thus, the variables must take values in one of the polytopes of the operational domain. The operational domains generated by operational domain module 904 can be used to define and impose constraints on the high level optimization problem.

Referring particularly to FIG. 12, a block diagram illustrating operational domain module 904 in greater detail is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Operational domain module 904 can be configured to construct an operational domain for one or more elements of asset allocation system 400. In some embodiments, operational domain module 904 converts sampled data points into a collection of convex regions making up the operational domain and then generates constraints based on the vertices of the convex regions. Being able to convert sampled data points into constraints gives asset allocator 402 much generality. This conversion methodology is referred to as the constraint generation process. The constraint generation process is illustrated through a simple chiller subplant example, described in greater detail below.

FIG. 13 illustrates a subplant curve 1300 for a chiller subplant. Subplant curve 1300 is an example of a typical chiller subplant curve relating the electricity usage of the chiller subplant with the chilled water production of the chiller subplant. Although only two variables are shown in subplant curve 1300, it should be understood that the constraint generation process also applies to high dimensional problems. For example, the constraint generation process can be extended to the case that the condenser water return temperature is included in the chiller subplant operational domain. When the condenser water return temperature is included, the electricity usage of the chiller subplant can be defined as a function of both the chilled water production and the condenser water return temperature. This results in a three-dimensional operational domain. The constraint generation process described here applies to two-dimensional problems as well as higher dimensional problems.

Referring now to FIGS. 12 and 14, the components and functions of operational domain module 904 are described. FIG. 14 is a flowchart outlining the constraint generation process 1400 performed by operational domain module 904. Process 1400 is shown to include collecting samples of data points within the operational domain (step 1402). In some embodiments, step 1402 is performed by a data gathering module 1202 of operational domain module 904. Step 1402 can include sampling the operational domain (e.g., the high level subplant curve). For the operational tool (i.e., central plant controller 600), the data sampling may be performed by successively calling low level optimizer 634. For the planning tool 700, the data may be supplied by the user and asset allocator 402 may automatically construct the associated constraints.

In some embodiments, process 1400 includes sorting and aggregating data points by equipment efficiency (step 1404). Step 1404 can be performed when process 1400 is performed by planning tool 700. If the user specifies efficiency and capacity data on the equipment level (e.g., provides data for each chiller of the subplant), step 1404 can be performed to organize and aggregate the data by equipment efficiency.

The result of steps 1402-1404 is shown in FIG. 15A. FIG. 15A is a plot 1500 of several data points 1502 collected in step 1402. Data points 1502 can be partitioned into two sets of points by a minimum turndown (MTD) threshold 1504. The first set of points includes a single point 1506 representing the performance of the chiller subplant when the chiller subplant is completely off (i.e., zero production and zero resource consumption). The second set of data points includes the points 1502 between the MTD threshold 1504 and the maximum capacity 1508 of the chiller subplant.

Process 1400 is shown to include generating convex regions from different sets of the data points (step 1406). In some embodiments, step 1406 is performed by a convex hull module 1204 of operational domain module 904. A set X is a “convex set” if for all points (x,y) in set X and for all θ∈[0,1], the point described by the linear combination (1−θ)x+θy also belongs in set X. A “convex hull” of a set of points is the smallest convex set that contains X. Convex hull module 1204 can be configured to generate convex regions from the sampled data by applying an n-dimensional convex hull algorithm to the data. In some embodiments, convex hull module 1204 uses the convex hull algorithm of Matlab (i.e., “convhulln”), which executes an n-dimensional convex hull algorithm. Convex hull module 1204 can identify the output of the convex hull algorithm as the vertices of the convex hull.

The result of step 1406 applied to the chiller subplant example is shown in FIG. 15B. FIG. 15B is a plot 1550 of two convex regions CR-1 and CR-2. Point 1506 is the output of the convex hull algorithm applied to the first set of points. Since only a single point 1506 exists in the first set, the first convex region CR-1 is the single point 1506. The points 1510, 1512, 1514, and 1516 are the output of the convex hull algorithm applied to the second set of points between the MTD threshold 1504 and the maximum capacity 1508. Points 1510-1516 define the vertices of the second convex region CR-2.

Process 1400 is shown to include generating constraints from vertices of the convex regions (step 1408). In some embodiments, step 1408 is performed by a constraint generator 1206 of operational domain module 904. The result of step 1408 applied to the chiller subplant example is shown in FIG. 16. FIG. 16 is a plot 1600 of the operational domain 1602 for the chiller subplant. Operational domain 1602 includes the set of points contained within both convex regions CR-1 and CR-2 shown in plot 1550. These points include the origin point 1506 as well as all of the points within area 1604.

Constraint generator 1206 can be configured to convert the operational domain 1602 and/or the set of vertices that define the operational domain 1602 into a set of constraints. Many methods exists to convert the vertices of the convex regions into optimization constraints. These methodologies produce different optimization formulations or different problem structures, but the solutions to these different formulations are equivalent. All methods effectively ensure that the computed variables (inputs and outputs) are within one of the convex regions of the operational domain. Nevertheless, the time required to solve the different formulations may vary significantly. The methodology described below has demonstrated better execution times in feasibility studies over other formulations.

MILP Formulation

In some embodiments, constraint generator 1206 uses a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) formulation to generate the optimization constraints. A few definitions are needed to present the MILP formulation. A subset P of

^(d) is called a convex polyhedron if it is the set of solutions to a finite system of linear inequalities (i.e., P={x:a_(j) ^(T)x≤b_(j), j=1 . . . m}). Note that this definition also allows for linear equalities because an equality may be written as two inequalities. For example, c_(j)x=d_(j) is equivalent to [c_(j), −c_(j)]^(T)x≤[d_(j), −d_(j)]^(T). A convex polytope is a bounded convex polyhedron. Because the capacity of any subplant is bounded, constraint generator 1206 may exclusively work with convex polytopes.

In some embodiments, the MILP formulation used by constraint generator 1206 to define the operational domain is the logarithmic disaggregated convex combination model (DLog). The advantage of the DLog model is that only a logarithmic number of binary variables with the number of convex regions need to be introduced into the optimization problem as opposed to a linear number of binary variables. Reducing the number of binary variables introduced into the problem is advantageous as the resulting problem is typically computationally easier to solve.

Constraint generator 1206 can use the DLog model to capture which convex region is active through a binary numbering of the convex regions. Each binary variable represents a digit in the binary numbering. For example, if an operational domain consists of four convex regions, the convex regions can be numbered zero through three, or in binary numbering 00 to 11. Two binary variables can used in the formulation: y₁∈{0,1} and y₂∈{0,1} where the first variable y₁ represents the first digit of the binary numbering and the second variable y₂ represents the second digit of the binary numbering. If y₁=0 and y₂=0, the zeroth convex region is active. Similarly, y₁=1 and y₂=0, the second convex region is active. In the DLog model, a point in any convex region is represented by a convex combination of the vertices of the polytope that describes the convex region.

In some embodiments, constraint generator 1206 formulates the DLog model as follows: let

be the set of polytopes that describes the operational domain (i.e.,

represents the collection of convex regions that make up the operational domain). Let P_(i)∈

(i=1, . . . , n_(CR)) be the ith polytope which describes the ith convex region of the operational domain. Let V(P_(i)) be the vertices of the ith polytope, and let V(

):=

V(P) be the vertices of all polytopes. In this formulation, an auxiliary continuous variable can be introduced for each vertex of each polytope of the operational domain, which is denoted by λ_(P) _(i) _(,v) _(j) where the subscripts denote that the continuous variable is for the jth vertex of the ith polytope. For this formulation, ┌log₂|

|┐ binary variables are needed where the function ┌⋅┐ denotes the ceiling function (i.e., ┌x┐ is the smallest integer not less than x. Constraint generator 1206 can define an injective function B:

→

. The injective function may be interpreted as the binary numbering of the convex regions.

In some embodiments, the DLog formulation is given by:

Σ_(v∈V(P))λ_(P,V) v=x

-   -   λ_(P,v)v≥0, ∀P∈         , v∈V(P)

Σ_(v∈V(P))λ_(P,v)=1

Σ_(v∈V)(P)Δ_(P,v) ≤y ₁ , ∀l∈L(P)

Σ_(v∈V(P))λ_(P,v)≤(1−y _(l)), ∀1∈L(P)

-   -   y∈{0,1}, ∀l∈L(P)         where         ⁺(B,l):={P∈         :B(P)_(l)=1},         ⁰(B,l): ={P∈         :B(P)_(l)=0}, and L(         ):={1, . . . , log₂|         |}. If there are shared vertices between the convex regions, a         fewer number of continuous variables may need to be introduced.

To understand the injective function and the sets

⁺(B,l) and

⁰(B,l), consider again the operational domain consisting of four convex regions. Again, binary numbering can be used to number the sets from 00 to 11, and two binary variables can be used to represent each digit of the binary set numbering. Then, the injective function maps any convex region, which is a polytope, to a unique set of binary variables. Thus, B(P₀)=[0,0]^(T), B(P₁)=[0,1]^(T), B(P₂)=[1,0]^(T), and B(P₃)=[1,1]^(T). Also, for example, the sets

⁺(B,0) {PÅ

:B(P)₀=1}=P₂∪P₃ and

⁰(B,0):={P∈

:B(P)₀=0}=P₀∪P₁.

Box Constraints

Still referring to FIG. 12, operational domain module 904 is shown to include a box constraints module 1208. Box constraints module 1208 can be configured to adjust the operational domain for a subplant 420 in the event that a device of the subplant 420 is unavailable or will be unavailable (e.g., device offline, device removed for repairs or testing, etc.). Reconstructing the operational domain by resampling the resulting high level operational domain with low level optimizer 634 can be used as an alternative to the adjustment performed by box constraints module 1208. However, reconstructing the operational domain in this manner may be time consuming. The adjustment performed by box constraints module 1208 may be less time consuming and may allow operational domains to be updated quickly when devices are unavailable. Also, owing to computational restrictions, it may be useful to use a higher fidelity subplant model for the first part of the prediction horizon. Reducing the model fidelity effectively means merging multiple convex regions.

In some embodiments, box constraints module 1208 is configured to update the operational domain by updating the convex regions with additional box constraints. Generating the appropriate box constraints may include two primary steps: (1) determining the admissible operational interval(s) of the independent variable (e.g., the production of the subplant) and (2) generating box constraints that limit the independent variable to the admissible operational interval(s). Both of these steps are described in detail below.

In some embodiments, box constraints module 1208 determines the admissible operational interval (e.g., the subplant production) using an algorithm that constructs the union of intervals. Box constraints module 1208 may compute two convolutions. For example, let lb and ub be vectors with elements corresponding to the lower and upper bound of the independent variables of each available device within the subplant. Box constraints module 1208 can compute two convolutions to compute all possible combinations of lower and upper bounds with all the combinations of available devices on and off. The two convolutions can be defined as follows:

lb _(all,combos) ^(T)=[0

]*[0 lb _(T)]

ub _(all,combos) ^(T)=[0

]*[0 ub _(T)]

where lb_(all,combos) and ub_(all,combos) are vectors containing the elements with the lower and

upper bounds with all combinations of the available devices on and off,

is a vector with all ones of the same dimension as lb and ub, and the operator * represents the convolution operator. Note that each element of lb_(all,combos) and ub_(all,combos) are subintervals of admissible operating ranges. In some embodiments, box constraints module 1208 computes the overall admissible operating range by computing the union of the subintervals.

To compute the union of the subintervals, box constraints module 1208 can define the vector v as follows:

v:=[lb _(all,combos) ^(T) ,ub _(all,combos) ^(T)]^(T)

and may sort the vector v from smallest to largest:

[t,p]=sort(v)

where t is a vector with sorted elements of v, p is a vector with the index position in v of each element in t. If p_(i)≤n where n is the dimension of lb_(all,combos) and ub_(all,combos), the ith element of t is a lower bound. However, if p_(i)>n, the ith element of t is an upper bound. Box constraints module 1208 may construct the union of the sub intervals by initializing a counter at zero and looping through each element of p starting with the first element. If the element corresponds to a lower bound, box constraints module 1208 may add one to the counter. However, if the element corresponds to an upper bound, box constraints module 1208 may subtract one from the counter. Once the counter is set to zero, box constraints module 1208 may determine that the end of the subinterval is reached. An example of this process is illustrated graphically in FIGS. 17A-17B.

Referring now to FIGS. 17A-17B, a pair of graphs 1700 and 1750 illustrating the operational domain update procedure performed by box constraints module 1208 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. In this example, consider a subplant consisting of three devices where the independent variable is the production of the subplant. Let the first two devices have a minimum and maximum production of 3.0 and 5.0 units, respectively, and the third device has a minimum and maximum production of 2.0 and 4.0 units, respectively. The minimum production may be considered to be the minimum turndown of the device and the maximum production may be considered to be the device capacity. With all the devices available, the results of the two convolutions are:

lb _(all,combos) ^(T)=[0.0,2.0,3.0,5.0,6.0,8.0]

ub _(all,combos) ^(T)=[0.0,4.0,5.0,9.0,10.0,14.0]

The result of applying the counter algorithm to these convolutions with all the devices available is shown graphically in FIG. 17A. The start of an interval occurs when the counter becomes greater than 0 and the end of an interval occurs when the counter becomes 0. Thus, from FIG. 17A, the admissible production range of the subplant when all the devices are available is either 0 units if the subplant is off or any production from 2.0 to 14.0 units. In other words, the convex regions in the operational domain are {0} and another region including the interval from 2.0 to 14.0 units.

If one of the first two devices becomes unavailable, the subplant includes one device having a minimum and maximum production of 3.0 and 5.0 units, respectively, and another device having a minimum and maximum production of 2.0 and 4.0 units, respectively. Accordingly, the admissible production range of the subplant is from 2.0 to 9.0 units. This means that the second convex region needs to be updated so that it only contains the interval from 2.0 to 9.0 units.

If the third device becomes unavailable, the subplant includes two devices, both of which have a minimum and maximum production of 3.0 and 5.0 units, respectively. Therefore, the admissible range of production for the subplant is from 3.0 to 5.0 units and from 6.0 to 10.0 units. This result can be obtained using the convolution technique and counter method. For example, when the third device becomes unavailable, the two convolutions are (omitting repeated values):

lb _(all,combos) ^(T)=[0.0,3.0,6.0]

ub _(all,combos) ^(T)=[0.0,5.0,10.0]

The result of applying the counter algorithm to these convolutions with the third device unavailable is shown graphically in FIG. 17B. The start of an interval occurs when the counter becomes greater than 0 and the end of an interval occurs when the counter becomes 0. From FIG. 17B, the new admissible production range is from 3.0 to 5.0 units and from 6.0 to 10.0 units. Thus, if the third device is unavailable, there are three convex regions: {0}, the interval from 3.0 to 5.0 units, and the interval from 6.0 to 10.0 units. This means that the second convex region of the operational domain with all devices available needs to be split into two regions.

Once the admissible range of the independent variable (e.g., subplant production) has been determined, box constraints module 1208 can generate box constraints to ensure that the independent variable is maintained within the admissible range. Box constraints module 1208 can identify any convex regions of the original operational domain that have ranges of the independent variables outside the new admissible range. If any such convex ranges are identified, box constraints module 1208 can update the constraints that define these convex regions such that the resulting operational domain is inside the new admissible range for the independent variable. The later step can be accomplished by adding additional box constraints to the convex regions, which may be written in the general form x_(lb)≤x≤x_(ub) where x is an optimization variable and x_(lb) and x_(ub) are the lower and upper bound, respectively, for the optimization variable x.

In some embodiments, box constraints module 1208 removes an end portion of a convex region from the operational domain. This is referred to as slicing the convex region and is shown graphically in FIGS. 18A-18B. For example, FIG. 18A is a graph 1800 of an operational domain which includes a convex region CR-2. A first part 1802 of the convex region CR-2 is within the operational range determined by box constraints module 1208. However, a second part 1804 of the convex region CR-2 is outside the operational range determined by box constraints module 1208. Box constraints module 1208 can remove the second part 1804 from the convex region CR-2 by imposing a box constraint that limits the independent variable (i.e., chilled water production) within the operational range. The slicing operation results in the modified convex region CR-2 shown in graph 1850.

In some embodiments, box constraints module 1208 removes a middle portion of a convex region from the operational domain. This is referred to as splitting the convex region and is shown graphically in FIGS. 19A-19B. For example, FIG. 19A is a graph 1900 of an operational domain which includes a convex region CR-2. A first part 1902 of the convex region CR-2 is within the operational range between lower bound 1908 and upper bound 1910. Similarly, a third part 1906 of the convex region CR-2 is within the operational range between lower bound 1912 and upper bound 1914. However, a second part 1904 of the convex region CR-2 is outside the split operational range. Box constraints module 1208 can remove the second part 1904 from the convex region CR-2 by imposing two box constraints that limit the independent variable (i.e., chilled water production) within the operational ranges. The splitting operation results two smaller convex regions CR-2 and CR-3 shown in graph 1950.

In some embodiments, box constraints module 1208 removes a convex region entirely. This operation can be performed when a convex region lies entirely outside the admissible operating range. Removing an entire convex region can be accomplished by imposing a box constraint that limits the independent variable within the admissible operating range. In some embodiments, box constraints module 1208 merges two or more separate convex regions. The merging operation effectively reduces the model fidelity (described in greater detail below).

Box constraints module 1208 can automatically update the operational domain in response to a determination that one or more devices of the subplant are offline or otherwise unavailable for use. In some embodiments, a flag is set in the operational tool when a device becomes unavailable. Box constraints module 1208 can detect such an event and can queue the generation of an updated operational domain by querying the resulting high level subplant operational domain. In other words, the high level subplant operational domain for the subplant resulting from the collection of devices that remain available can be sampled and the operational domain can be constructed as described in process 1400. The generation of the updated operational domain may occur outside of the high level optimization algorithm in another computer process. Once the constraint generation process is complete, the operational domain data can be put into the data model and used in the optimization problem instead of the fast update method performed by box constraints module 1208.

Cross Section Constraints

Still referring to FIG. 12, operational domain module 904 is shown to include a cross section constraints module 1210. Cross section constraints module 1210 can be configured to modify the constraints on the high level optimization when one or more optimization variables are treated as fixed parameters. When the high level subplant operational domain includes additional parameters, the data sampled from the high level operational domain is of higher dimension than what is used in the optimization. For example, the chiller subplant operational domain may be three dimensional to include the electricity usage as a function of the chilled water production and the condenser water temperature. However, in the optimization problem, the condenser water temperature may be treated as a parameter.

The constraint generation process (described above) may be used with the higher dimensional sampled data of the subplant operational domain. This results in the following constraints being generated:

A _(x,j) x _(j) +A _(z,j) z _(j) +A _(y,j) y _(j) ≤b _(j)

H _(x,j) x _(j) +H _(z,j) z _(j) +H _(y,j) y _(j) =g _(j)

x _(lb,j) ≤x _(j) x _(ub,j)

z _(lb,j) ≤z _(j) ≤z _(ub,j)

z _(j)=integer

where x_(j) is a vector consisting of the continuous decision variables, z₁ is a vector consisting of the discrete decision variables, y_(j) is a vector consisting of all the parameters, and H_(y,j) and A_(y,j) are the constraint matrices associated with the parameters. Cross section constraints module 1210 can be configured to modify the constraints such that the operational domain is limited to a cross section of the original operational domain. The cross section may include all of the points that have the same fixed value for the parameters.

In some embodiments, cross section constraints module 1210 retains the parameters in vector y_(j) as decision variables in the optimization problem, bus uses equality constraints to ensure that they are set to their actual values. The resulting constraints used in the optimization problem are given by:

A _(x,j) x _(j) +A _(z,j) z _(j) +A _(y,j) y _(j) ≤b _(j)

H _(x,j) x _(j) +H _(z,j) z _(j) +H _(y,j) y _(j) =g _(j)

x _(lb,j) ≤x _(j) ≤x _(ub,j)

z _(lb,j) ≤z _(j) ≤z _(ub,j)

y _(j) =p

z _(j)=integer

where p is a vector of fixed values (e.g., measured or estimated parameter values).

In other embodiments, cross section constraints module 1210 substitutes values for the parameters before setting up and solving the optimization problem. This method reduces the dimension of the constraints and the optimization problem, which may be computationally desirable. Assuming that the parameters are either measured or estimated quantities (e.g., in the case of the condenser water temperature, the temperature may be measured), the parameter values may be substituted into the constraints. The resulting constraints used in the optimization problem are given by:

A _(x,j) x _(j) +A _(z,j) z _(j) +A _(y,j) y _(j) ≤b _(j)

H _(x,j) x _(j) +H _(z,j) z _(j) +H _(y,j) y _(j) =g _(j)

x _(lb,j) ≤x _(j) ≤x _(ub,j)

z _(lb,j) ≤z _(j) ≤z _(ub,j)

z _(j)=integer

where b _(j)=b_(j)−A_(y,i)p and g _(j)=g_(j)−H_(y,j)p

In some embodiments, cross section constraints module 1210 is configured to detect and remove redundant constraints. It is possible that there are redundant constraints after taking a cross section of the constraints. Being computationally mindful, it is desirable to automatically detect and remove redundant constraints. Cross section constraints module 1210 can detect redundant constraints by computing the vertices of the corresponding dual polytope and computing the convex hull of the dual polytope vertices. Cross section constraints module 1210 can identify any vertices contained in the interior of the convex hull as redundant constraints.

The following example illustrates the automatic detection and removal of redundant constraints by cross section constraints module 1210. Consider a polytope described by the inequality constraints Ax≤b. In this example, only an individual polytope or convex region of the operational domain is considered, whereas the previous set of constraints describe the entire operational domain. Cross section constraints module 1210 can be configured to identify any point c that lies strictly on the interior of the polytope (i.e., such that Ac≤b). These points can be identified by least squares or computing the analytic center of the polytope. Cross section constraints module 1210 can then shift the polytope such that the origin is contained in the interior of the polytope. The shifted coordinates for the polytope can be defined as x=x−c. After shifting the polytope, cross section constraints module 1210 can compute the vertices of the dual polytope. If the polytope is defined as the set P={x:Ax≤b}, then the dual polytope is the set P*={y:y^(T)x≤1, ∀x∈P}. Cross section constraints module 1210 can then compute the convex hull of the dual polytope vertices. If a vertex of the dual polytope is not a vertex of the convex hull, cross section constraints module 1210 can identify the corresponding constraint as redundant and may remove the redundant constraint.

Referring now to FIGS. 20A-20D, several graphs 2000, 2020, 2040, and 2060 illustrating the redundant constraint detection and removal process are shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Graph 2000 is shown to include the boundaries 2002 of several constraints computed after taking the cross section of higher dimensional constraints. The constraints bounded by boundaries 2002 are represented by the following inequalities:

x ₁ −x ₂≤−1

2x ₁ −x ₂≤1

−3/2x ₁ +x ₂≤0

−x ₁ +x ₂≤0

The operational domain is represented by a polytope with vertices 2006. Point 2004 can be identified as a point that lies strictly on the interior of the polytope.

Graph 2020 shows the result of shifting the polytope such that the origin is contained in the interior of the polytope. The polytope is shifted to a new coordinate system (i.e., x ₁ and x ₂) with the origin 2022 (i.e., x ₁=0 and x ₂=0) located within the polytope. Graph 2040 shows the result of computing the vertices 2044 of the dual polytope 2042, which may be defined by the set P*={y:y^(T)x≤1, ∀x∈P}. Graph 2060 shows the result of computing the convex hull of the dual polytope vertices 2044 and removing any constraints that correspond to vertices 2044 of the dual polytope but not to vertices of the convex hull. In this example, the constraint x₁−x₂≤−1 is removed, resulting in the feasible region 2062.

Referring now to FIGS. 21A-21B, graphs 2100 and 2150 illustrating the cross section constraint generation process performed by cross section constraints module 1210 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Graph 2100 is a three-dimensional graph having an x-axis, a y-axis, and a z-axis. Each of the variables x, y, and z may be treated as optimization variables in a high level optimization problem. Graph 2100 is shown to include a three-dimensional surface 2100 defined by the following equations:

$z = \left\{ \begin{matrix} {\mspace{56mu}{{x + y},}} & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} x} \in \left\lbrack {0,1} \right\rbrack} \\ {{{2x} + y - 1},} & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} x} \in \left\lbrack {1,2} \right\rbrack} \end{matrix} \right.$

for x∈[0,2] and y∈[0,3], where x is the subplant production, y is a parameter, and z is the amount of resources consumed.

A three-dimensional subplant operational domain is bounded surface 2102. The three-dimensional operational domain is described by the following set of constraints:

${{- \frac{5}{3x}} - y + z} \leq {0 - y} \leq 0$ y ≤ 3 x + y − z ≤ 0 2x + y − z ≤ 1

The cross section constraint generation process can be applied to the three dimensional operational domain. When variable y is treated as a fixed parameter (i.e., y=1), the three-dimensional operational domain can be limited to the cross section 2104 along the plane y=1. Cross section constraints module 1210 can generate the following cross section constraints to represent the two-dimensional cross section of the original three-dimensional operational domain:

${{- \frac{5}{3x}} + z} \leq 1$ x − z ≤ −1 2x − z ≤ 0

which are represented by boundaries 2154 in graph 2150. The resulting two-dimensional operational domain is shown as feasible region 2152 in graph 2150.

Rate of Change Penalties

Referring again to FIG. 12, operational domain module 904 is shown to include a rate of change penalties module 1212. Rate of change penalties module 1212 can be configured to modify the high level optimization problem to add rate of change penalties for one or more of the decision variables. Large changes in decision variable values between consecutive time steps may result in a solution that may not be physically implementable. Rate of change penalties prevent computing solutions with large changes in the decision variables between consecutive time steps. In some embodiments, the rate of change penalties have the form:

c _(Δx,k) |Δx _(k) |=c _(Δx,k) |x _(k) −x _(k−1)|

where x_(k) denotes the value of the decision variable x at time step k, x_(k−1) denotes the variable value at time step k−1, and c_(Δx,k) is the penalty weight for the rate of change of the variable at the kth time step.

In some embodiments, rate of change penalties module 1212 introduces an auxiliary variable Δx_(k) for k∈{1, . . . , h}, which represents the rate of change of the decision variable x. This may allow asset allocator 402 to solve the high level optimization with the rate of change penalty using linear programming. Rate of change penalties module 1212 may add the following constraints to the optimization problem to ensure that the auxiliary variable is equal to the rate of change of x at each time step in the optimization period:

x _(k−1) −x _(k) ≤Δx _(k)

x _(k) −x _(k−1) ≤Δx _(k)

Δx _(k)≥0

for all k∈{1, . . . , h}, where h is the number of time steps in the optimization period.

The inequality constraints associated with the rate of change penalties may have the following structure:

${\begin{bmatrix} \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & ⋰ \\ \cdots & {- 1} & 0 & 0 & \cdots & {- 1} & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & {- 1} & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 1 & {- 1} & 0 & \cdots & 0 & {- 1} & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {- 1} & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & {- 1} & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & 1 & {- 1} & \cdots & 0 & 0 & {- 1} & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & {- 1} & 1 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & {- 1} & \cdots \\ ⋰ & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ x_{1} \\ x_{2} \\ x_{3} \\ \vdots \\ {\Delta\; x_{1}} \\ {\Delta\; x_{2}} \\ {\Delta\; x_{3}} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}} \leq \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ {- x_{0}} \\ x_{0} \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}$

Rate of Change Constraints

Still referring to FIG. 12, operational domain module 904 is shown to include a rate of change constraints module 1214. A more strict method that prevents large changes in decision variable values between consecutive time steps is to impose (hard) rate of change constraints. For example, the following constraint can be used to constrain the rate of change Δx_(k) between upper bounds Δx_(ub,k) and lower bounds Δx_(lb,k)

Δx _(lb,k) ≤Δx _(k) ≤Δx _(ub,k)

where Δx_(k)=x_(k)−x_(k−1), Δx_(lb,k)<0, and Δx_(ub,k)>0.

The inequality constraints associated with these rate of change constraints are given by the following structure:

${\begin{bmatrix} \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & ⋰ \\ \cdots & {- 1} & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 1 & {- 1} & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {- 1} & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & 1 & {- 1} & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & {- 1} & 1 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & {- 1} & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 1 & \cdots \\ ⋰ & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ x_{1} \\ x_{2} \\ x_{3} \\ \vdots \\ x_{h} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}} \leq \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ {{{- \Delta}\; x_{{lb},k}} - x_{0}} \\ {{\Delta\; x_{{ub},k}} + x_{0}} \\ {{- \Delta}\; x_{{lb},k}} \\ {\Delta\; x_{{ub},k}} \\ {{- \Delta}\; x_{{lb},k}} \\ {\Delta\; x_{{ub},k}} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}$

Storage/Airside Constraints

Still referring to FIG. 12, operational domain module 904 is shown to include a storage/airside constraints module 1216. Storage/airside constraints module 1216 can be configured to modify the high level optimization problem to account for energy storage in the air or mass of the building. To predict the state of charge of such storage a dynamic model can be solved. Storage/airside constraints module 1216 can use a single shooting method or a multiple shooting method to embed the solution of a dynamic model within the optimization problem. Both the single shooting method and the multiple shooting method are described in detail below.

In the single shooting method, consider a general discrete-time linear dynamic model of the form:

x _(k+1) =Δx _(k) +Bu _(k)

where x_(k) denotes the state (e.g., state of charge) at time k and u_(k) denotes the input at time k. In general, both the state x_(k) and input u_(k) may be vectors. To solve the dynamic model over h time steps, storage/airside constraints module 1216 may identify the initial condition and an input trajectory/sequence. In an optimal control framework, the input trajectory can be determined by the optimization solver. Without loss of generality, the time interval over which the dynamic model is solved is taken to be the interval [0, h]. The initial condition is denoted by x₀.

The state x_(k) and input u_(k) can be constrained by the following box constraints:

x _(lb,k) ≤x _(k) ≤x _(ub,k)

u _(lb,k) ≤u _(k) ≤u _(ub,k)

for all k, where x_(lb,k) is the lower bound on the state x_(k), x_(ub,k) is the upper bound on the state x_(k), u_(lb,k) is the lower bound on the input u_(k), and u_(ub,k) is the upper bound on the input u_(k). In some embodiments, the bounds may be time-dependent.

In the single shooting method, only the input sequence may be included as a decision variable because the state x_(k) at any given time step is a function of the initial condition x₀ and the input trajectory. This strategy has less decision variables in the optimization problem than the second method, which is presented below. The inequality constraints associated with the upper bound on the state x_(k) may have the following structure:

${\begin{bmatrix} \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & ⋰ \\ \cdots & B & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {AB} & B & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {A^{2}B} & {AB} & B & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \cdots \\ \cdots & {A^{h - 1}B} & {A^{h - 2}B} & {A^{h - 3}B} & \cdots & B & \cdots \\ ⋰ & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ u_{0} \\ u_{1} \\ u_{2} \\ \vdots \\ u_{h - 1} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}} \leq \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ {x_{{ub},1} - {Ax}_{0}} \\ {x_{{ub},2} - {A^{2}x_{0}}} \\ {x_{{ub},3} - {A^{3}x_{0}}} \\ \vdots \\ {x_{{ub},h} - {A^{h}x_{0}}} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}$

Similarly, the inequality constraints associated with the lower bound on the state x_(k) may have the following structure:

${\begin{bmatrix} \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & ⋰ \\ \cdots & {- B} & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {- {AB}} & {- B} & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {{- A^{2}}B} & {- {AB}} & {- B} & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \cdots \\ \cdots & {{- A^{h - 1}}B} & {{- A^{h - 2}}B} & {{- A^{h - 3}}B} & \cdots & {- B} & \cdots \\ ⋰ & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ u_{0} \\ u_{1} \\ u_{2} \\ \vdots \\ u_{h - 1} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}} \leq \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ {{Ax}_{0} - x_{{lb},1}} \\ {{A^{2}x_{0}} - x_{{lb},2}} \\ {{A^{3}x_{0}} - x_{{lb},3}} \\ \vdots \\ {{A^{h}x_{0}} - x_{{lb},h}} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}$

In some embodiments, more general constraints or mixed constraints may also be considered. These constraints may have the following form:

A _(ineq,x) x(k)+A _(ineq,u) u(k)≤b _(ineq)

The inequality constraint structure associated with the single shooting strategy and the mixed constraints may have the form:

${\begin{bmatrix} \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & ⋰ \\ \cdots & A_{{ineq},u} & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {{A_{{ineq},x}B} + A_{{ineq},u}} & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {A_{{ineq},x}{AB}} & {{A_{{ineq},x}B} + A_{{ineq},u}} & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & {A_{{ineq},x}A^{2}B} & {A_{{ineq},x}{AB}} & {{A_{{ineq},x}B} + A_{{ineq},u}} & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \cdots \\ \cdots & {A_{{inceq},x}A^{h - 2}B} & {A_{{ineq},x}A^{h - 3}B} & {A_{{ineq},x}A^{h - 4}B} & \cdots & {{A_{{ineq},x}B} + A_{{ineq},u}} & \cdots \\ ⋰ & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ u_{0} \\ u_{1} \\ u_{2} \\ \vdots \\ u_{h - 1} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}} \leq \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ {b_{ineq} - {A_{{ineq},x}{x(0)}}} \\ {b_{ineq} - {A_{{ineq},x}{{Ax}(0)}}} \\ {b_{ineq} - {A_{{ineq},x}A^{2}{x(0)}}} \\ \vdots \\ {b_{ineq} - {A_{{ineq},x}A^{h - 1}{x(0)}}} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}$

In the multiple shooting method, storage/airside constraints module 1216 may include the state sequence as a decision variable in the optimization problem. This results in an optimization problem with more decision variables than the single shooting method. However, the multiple shooting method typically has more desirable numerical properties, resulting in an easier problem to solve even though the resulting optimization problem has more decision variables than that of the single shooting method.

To ensure that the state and input trajectories (sequences) satisfy the model of x_(k−1)=Ax_(k)+Bu_(k), the following equality constraints can be used:

${\begin{bmatrix} \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & ⋰ \\ \cdots & {- I} & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & B & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & A & {- I} & \cdots & 0 & 0 & 0 & B & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & A & \cdots & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & B & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & {- I} & 0 & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & 0 & \cdots & A & {- I} & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & B & \cdots \\ ⋰ & \vdots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ x_{1} \\ \vdots \\ x_{h - 1} \\ x_{h} \\ u_{1} \\ \vdots \\ u_{h - 1} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}} \leq \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ {- {Ax}_{0}} \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ \vdots \\ 0 \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}$

where I is an identity matrix of the same dimension as A. The bound constraints on the state x_(k) and inputs u_(k) can readily be included since the vector of decision variables may include both the state x_(k) and inputs u_(k).

Mixed constraints of the form A_(ineq,x)x(k)+A_(ineq,u)u(k)≤b_(ineq) can also be used in the multiple shooting method. These mixed constraints result in the following structure:

$\begin{bmatrix} \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & ⋰ \\ \cdots & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & A_{{ineq},u} & 0 & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & A_{{ineq},x} & \cdots & 0 & 0 & 0 & A_{{ineq},u} & \cdots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & 0 & \cdots \\ \cdots & 0 & \cdots & A_{{ineq},x} & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & A_{{ineq},u} & \cdots \\ \ddots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{bmatrix}{\quad{\begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ x_{1} \\ \vdots \\ x_{h - 1} \\ x_{h} \\ u_{1} \\ \vdots \\ u_{h - 1} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix} \leq \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ {b_{ineq} - {A_{{ineq},x}{x(0)}}} \\ b_{ineq} \\ \vdots \\ b_{ineq} \\ \vdots \end{bmatrix}}}$

Model Predictive Control for Various Environmental Conditions Overview

Referring generally to FIGS. 22-29, systems and methods for performing cost optimization based on various environmental conditions while maintaining occupant comfort are shown. The various environmental conditions may include, for example, temperature, humidity, PM2.5 concentration (i.e. particulate matter having a diameter of less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers), PM10 concentration (i.e. particulate matter having a diameter of less than or equal to 10 micrometers), carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc. In some embodiments, the various environmental conditions include particulate matter, such that particulate matter refers to particulate matter in the air of various diameters (possibly including PM2.5 and/or PM10) that can be detrimental to occupant comfort. For a space (e.g., a zone of a building, a room in a building, etc.) to be comfortable for occupants, a comfortable range of each of the various environmental conditions should be maintained. If a value of an environmental condition falls outside the comfortable range for said environmental condition, an occupant in the space may be uncomfortable. By incorporating each environmental condition into the optimization problem solved by asset allocator 402 (e.g., the objective function J), occupant comfort can be maintained while optimizing (e.g., reducing) costs.

Another consideration to be made if solving the optimization problem is that devices that manage certain environmental conditions may directly and/or indirectly affect other environmental conditions as well. For example, if an air conditioner is operated to lower a temperature in a space, a temperature of a heat exchanger should be lowered below a dew point temperature of the air to maintain a comfortable humidity level. As another example, an air purifier operated to reduce PM2.5 concentration in the air may also reduce PM10 concentration and/or any particulate matter concentration in the air as a result of the operation. As such, the optimization problem may need to account for how different devices affect each environmental condition to maintain occupant comfort while optimizing costs. In this way, the optimization problem can consider environmental condition models that predict how environmental conditions change based on operation of building equipment.

Environmental Control System

Referring now to FIG. 22, an environmental control system 2200 is shown, according to some embodiments. Environmental control system 2200 is shown to include a conditioned space 2204. Conditioned space 2204 can be any space that requires environmental conditions to be managed as to maintain occupant comfort such as, for example, a zone of a building (e.g., building 10), a room in a building, a building itself, etc. Conditioned space 2204 is shown to include a window 2210. Conditioned space 2204 may include no windows 2210, one window 2210, or multiple windows 2210, according to various embodiments. In some embodiments, particulate matter, heat, etc., can escape or enter around windows 2210, thereby affecting environmental conditions of conditioned space 2204. External space 2206 may be any space (e.g., a different zone of a building, outside, etc.) outside of conditioned space 2204. For example, if external space 2206 is the outdoors, particulate matter (e.g., PM2.5, PM10, etc.) may enter through window 2210, thereby decreasing air quality in conditioned space 2204.

Conditioned space 2204 is also shown to include a temperature sensor 2212, a relative humidity sensor 2214, a carbon dioxide sensor 2216, a carbon monoxide sensor 2218, a PM10 sensor 2220, and a PM2.5 sensor 2222. In some embodiments, some and/or all sensors of sensors 2212-2222 are components of a thermostat 2224. In some embodiments, some and/or all sensors of sensors 2212-2222 are independent sensors (e.g., separate sensors) of environmental control system 2200. In some embodiments, conditioned space 2204 may include more or fewer sensors than are shown by sensors 2212-2222. For example, conditioned space 2204 may include a sensor for detecting lighting in conditioned space 2204. In general, conditioned space 2204 includes at least the sensors necessary to measure environmental conditions associated with solving an optimization problem for conditioned space 2204.

Sensors 2212-2222 are shown to provide environmental condition data to a comfort controller 2202. In some embodiments, sensors 2212-2222 communicate the environmental condition data via thermostat 2224. In some embodiments, sensors 2212-2222 include components for facilitating electronic data communication. For example, sensors 2212-2222 may include an Ethernet card and port for sending and receiving data via an Ethernet-based communications network and/or a WiFi transceiver for communicating via a wireless communications network. Sensors 2212-2222 may be configured to communicate via local area networks or wide area networks (e.g., the Internet, a building WAN, etc.) and may use a variety of communications protocols (e.g., BACnet, IP, LON, etc.).

Based on the environmental condition data received from sensors 2212-2222, comfort controller 2202 can determine an optimized control schedule to be provided to BMS 606. The optimized control schedule provided by comfort controller 2202 can detail how building equipment 2208 should be operated to maintain occupant comfort in conditioned space 2204 while optimizing (e.g., reducing) costs. In some embodiments, comfort controller 2202 may additionally receive weather forecasts (i.e., a forecast of outdoor conditions) regarding various environmental conditions of external space 2206. For example, a forecast of carbon dioxide, PM2.5 levels, temperature, humidity, etc. may be gathered and used to generate the optimized control schedule. Forecasts of outdoor conditions can be particularly useful to ensure that building equipment 2208 is not operate to affect environmental conditions that may already be affected naturally due to changes in weather. In some embodiments, the optimized control schedule is constrained by one or more environmental condition constraints that maintain occupant comfort. For example, a temperature of conditioned space 2204 may be constrained by an upper and a lower comfort bound of 68° F. and 75° F. such that the optimized control schedule should ensure that the temperature of conditioned space 2204 is not greater than or smaller than the upper and lower comfort bounds respectively.

Moreover, the optimized control schedule can be generated respective of identified relationships between building devices of building equipment 2208. Relationships between building devices can indicate how certain building devices may advertently and/or inadvertently affect environmental conditions managed by other building devices. For example, a humidifier of building equipment 2208 may typically affect a humidity of conditioned space 2204 but may inadvertently affect air quality of conditioned space 2204 by humidifying air. Accordingly, an air purifier may be required to be operated to account for the change in air quality due to operating the humidifier. In this example, a relationship can be identified between the humidifier and the air purifier indicating that operation of the humidifier may necessitate operation of the air purifier. The optimization can be performed subject to any identified relationships such that a single optimization can be performed that accounts for various interactions between building devices of building equipment 2208.

Based on the optimized control schedule, BMS 606 can generate control signals to provide to building equipment 2208. Building equipment 2208 can include any building device capable of affecting (e.g., changing, increasing, decreasing) an environmental condition of conditioned space 2204. For example, building equipment 2208 can include a heater, an indoor unit of a variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system, an air purifier, a ventilator, a humidifier, etc. In general, the control signals can operate building equipment 2208 to affect one or more environmental conditions in conditioned space 2204 to maintain occupant comfort while optimizing costs related to operating building equipment 2208. As the optimized control schedule may account for relationships between building devices, the control signals may properly ensure that building equipment 2208 is operated such that environmental conditions satisfy constraints even if other building devices negatively affect some conditions.

Referring now to FIG. 23, comfort controller 2202 described with reference to FIG. 22 is shown in greater detail, according to some embodiments. Comfort controller 2202 is shown to include a communications interface 2308 and a processing circuit 2302. Communications interface 2308 may include wired or wireless interfaces (e.g., jacks, antennas, transmitters, receivers, transceivers, wire terminals, etc.) for conducting data communications with various systems, devices, or networks. For example, communications interface 2308 may include an Ethernet card and port for sending and receiving data via an Ethernet-based communications network and/or a WiFi transceiver for communicating via a wireless communications network. Communications interface 2308 may be configured to communicate via local area networks or wide area networks (e.g., the Internet, a building WAN, etc.) and may use a variety of communications protocols (e.g., BACnet, IP, LON, etc.).

Communications interface 2308 may be a network interface configured to facilitate electronic data communications between comfort controller 2202 and various external systems or devices (e.g., BMS 606, thermostat 2224, etc.). For example, comfort controller 2202 may receive environmental condition data from thermostat 2224 indicating one or more measured environmental conditions of the controlled building (e.g., temperature, relative humidity, air quality, etc.).

Still referring to FIG. 23, thermostat 2224 is shown to include air quality sensors 2316 including sensors 2216-2222. Air quality sensors 2316 can include more or less sensors than as shown in FIG. 23. In general, air quality sensors 2316 include the sensors necessary for detecting air quality conditions applicable to an optimization problem solved by asset allocator 402.

Processing circuit 2302 is shown to include a processor 2304 and memory 2306. Processor 2304 may be a general purpose or specific purpose processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), a group of processing components, or other suitable processing components. Processor 2304 may be configured to execute computer code or instructions stored in memory 2306 or received from other computer readable media (e.g., CDROM, network storage, a remote server, etc.).

Memory 2306 may include one or more devices (e.g., memory units, memory devices, storage devices, etc.) for storing data and/or computer code for completing and/or facilitating the various processes described in the present disclosure. Memory 2306 may include random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), hard drive storage, temporary storage, non-volatile memory, flash memory, optical memory, or any other suitable memory for storing software objects and/or computer instructions. Memory 2306 may include database components, object code components, script components, or any other type of information structure for supporting the various activities and information structures described in the present disclosure. Memory 2306 may be communicably connected to processor 2304 via processing circuit 2302 and may include computer code for executing (e.g., by processor 2304) one or more processes described herein.

In some embodiments, one or more components of memory 2306 are included in a single component of memory 2306. However, for ease of explanation, components of memory 2306 are shown and described separately. Memory 2306 is shown to include a data collector 2310. In some embodiments, data collector 2310 is configured to collect data communicated to communications interface 2308 (e.g., environmental condition data from sensors 2212-2222). In some embodiments, data collector 2310 communicates data received by communications interface 2308 to a comfort model generator 2312 upon reception. In some embodiments, data collector 2310 communicates data to comfort model generator 2312 after a sufficient amount of data is gathered and/or comfort model generator 2312 requests data from data collector 2310.

Memory 2306 is also shown to include comfort model generator 2312. Comfort model generator 2312 can be configured to generate a comfort model that can be used to determine how occupants may react to setpoint changes. The comfort model may include comfort ranges for environmental conditions such that the comfort ranges are known to maintain occupant comfort.

Memory 2306 is also shown to include a constraint generator 2314. Based on the comfort model received by comfort model generator 2312, constraint generator 2314 can determine environmental condition constraints to provide to asset allocator 402. For example, the comfort model may indicate a maximum concentration of particulate matter permissible for maintaining occupant comfort. Based on the maximum concentration of particulate matter, constraint generator 2314 can generate an environmental condition constraint to provide to asset allocator 402 to adhere to when solving the optimization problem such that a concentration of particulate matter in conditioned space 2204 is maintained below the maximum concentration. In some embodiments, constraint generator 2314 extracts constraints directly from the comfort model. In some embodiments, constraint generator 2314 tests various combinations of environmental conditions with the model and determines the constraints based on results of said tests. In yet other embodiments, constraint generator 2314 generates environmental condition constraints without the comfort model. For example, constraint generator 2314 may utilize indications of occupant comfort to determine environmental condition constraints to provide to asset allocator 402.

Constraint generator 2314 can also generate additional constraints on other conditions that affect occupants. For example, constraint generator 2314 may generate a noise constraint to place on a model predictive control process. The noise constraint may limit how much certain building equipment can be operated during certain periods of time to reduce noise. For example, a fan may make an annoying amount of noise during normal operation. As such, constraint generator 2314 may generate a noise constraint indicating the fan should operate at a lower operational level and/or not operate at all during a period of time when a presentation is held where the fan is located. The additional constraints generated by constraint generator 2314 may restrict what/when building equipment can be determined to be operated as to maintain occupant comfort while optimizing costs.

Still referring to FIG. 23, memory 2306 is also shown to include asset allocator 402. In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 is separate from comfort controller 2202 and is not a part of comfort controller 2202. If asset allocator 402 is separate from comfort controller 2202, asset allocator may include an independent processing circuit, processor, memory, etc. configured to generate and solve an optimization problem. However, asset allocator 402 is shown as a component in comfort controller 2202 for ease of explanation.

Based on the constraints received from constraint generator 2314 and the comfort model received from comfort model generator 2312, asset allocator 402 can generate and solve an optimization problem (e.g., the objective function J). The optimization problem can be configured to account for any applicable environmental conditions. For example, the optimization problem may account for temperature, relative humidity, and/or air quality conditions measured by sensors of air quality sensors 2316.

In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 accounts for relationships between building devices when solving the optimization problem (e.g., by performing MPC). As described above, accounting relationships between building devices can ensure that operation of one building device to affect a particular environmental condition does not result in another condition violating a constraint. More particularly, asset allocator 402 can solve the optimization problem such that building devices are operated with respect to how other building devices affect environmental conditions. In some embodiments, the relationships are identified by the comfort model generated and provided by comfort model generator 2312.

It should be noted that solving the optimization problem (e.g., optimizing the objective function J) may not indicate that an ideal result/solution is obtained. Rather, solving the optimization problem may indicate a solution to the optimization problem is obtained such that building equipment can be operated in accordance with the solution. For example, asset allocator 402 may determine that heater should be operated to increase a temperature in conditioned space 2204 to maintain occupant comfort and optimize (e.g., reduce) costs. However, an ideal solution of operating both a heater and a ventilator to increase the temperature may or may not be determined by asset allocator 402.

In some embodiments, if determining a solution to the optimization problem while adhering to environmental condition constraints provided by constraint generator 2314, some contaminants only have an upper bound constraint to adhere to. The contaminants may not require a lower bound constraint as occupants may not desire a contaminant concentration to be above some value. For the occupants to be comfortable based on contaminant concentration, it may be sufficient for each contaminant concentration to be below a certain value. However, relative humidity may have a lower bound constraint and an upper bound constraint such that the air is not too dry or too moist/damp in conditioned space 2204. Depending on constraints placed on each environmental condition, building equipment should be operated as to affect each environmental condition without moving another environmental condition beyond a comfortable range as determined based on model for the environmental conditions. For example, if a ventilator is operated to reduce a concentration of PM2.5 in the air, asset allocator 402 can ensure excessive heat is not introduced into the zone while extracting PM2.5 as to maintain occupant comfort in regards to both temperature and PM2.5 concentration.

Asset allocator 402 is shown to provide an optimized control schedule to BMS 606. In some embodiments, the optimized control schedule is provided to low level optimizer 634 described with reference to FIG. 6 to generate control decisions to provide to BMS 606. In some embodiments, the optimized control schedule (or the control decisions) indicates what building equipment to operate, when to operate said building equipment, and/or how to operate said building equipment. For example, the optimized control schedule can include setpoints for certain environmental conditions for various time steps in an optimization period. Based on the setpoints, BMS 606 and/or low level optimizer 634 can determine how to operate building equipment to achieve the setpoints. In general, the optimized control schedule determined by asset allocator 402 can take any form capable of indicating what building equipment to operate, when to operate said building equipment, and/or how to operate said building equipment to affect environmental conditions in a space, according to various embodiments.

Based on the optimized control schedule received from asset allocator 402 (or low level optimizer 634), BMS 606 can generate control signals to provide to building equipment indicated by the optimized control schedule. For example, BMS 606 can provide control signals to building equipment 2208 described with reference to FIG. 22 to affect a temperature in conditioned space 2204.

Asset Models

Referring now to FIG. 24, asset allocator 402 as described with reference to FIG. 9 is shown in greater detail, according to some embodiments. As shown in FIG. 24, element models 930 are shown to include asset models 2402. Asset models 2402 may store models for each asset capable of affecting an environmental change. For example, asset models 2402 may include models of assets such as a ventilator, a heater, a purifier, an economizer, etc. Each asset model of asset models 2402 may indicate inputs and outputs of each asset. Inputs to an asset may be resources provided by sources modeled by source models 934. For example, a purifier may require inputs of electricity, and a humidifier may require inputs of both water and electricity. Likewise, an output of an asset can be described as an environmental change. For example, a variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system may have an output of heat to a zone, while a ventilator may have an output of heat, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and various contaminants (e.g., PM2.5, PM10, etc.).

Asset allocator 402 can use each asset model of asset models 2402 if determining how to operate building equipment to affect an environmental condition(s) in a zone. Based on an amount of resources required to affect an environmental condition by a certain amount, asset allocator 402 can determine what asset affects the environmental condition(s) required at a lowest cost and without moving other environmental conditions outside constraints. In some embodiments, asset models 2402 are similar to and/or the same as subplant models 936.

In some embodiments, asset models 2402 may indicate relationships between assets. In other words, an individual model of asset models 2402 may indicate relationships between the individual model and other models. These relationships may be useful in identifying how operation of one asset (e.g., a building device) to affect an environmental condition may impact operation of other assets. For example, an asset model for a humidifier may indicate a relationship with an asset model for an air purifier such that operation of the humidifier may necessitate at least some operation of the air purifier. Including relationships in asset models 2402 can allow an performed by asset allocator 402 to generate optimal control decisions for all assets.

Zone Models

Element models 930 are also shown to include zone models 2404. Zone models 2404 allow for the dynamic nature of zones of a building to be considered by asset allocator 402. In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 determines an optimized control schedule for each zone in the building to maintain occupant comfort while optimizing (e.g., reducing) costs. Due to the dynamic nature of a zone, environmental conditions may naturally vary over time, with or without direct augmentation by assets in the zone. For example, a zone may experience airflow between the zone and the outdoors. Due to the airflow, contaminants may enter the zone independent of operation of any assets. Likewise, heat may be exchanged between the zone and an adjacent zone, thereby naturally increasing/decreasing a temperature in the zone.

A zone can be modeled in zone models 2404 using a state space representation tracking states of the zone. A state space of the zone for a next time step can be modeled as a state space at a current time step added with new inputs to the zone. In general, the state space of the zone for the next time step can be modeled by the following equation:

x(k+1)=Ax(k)+Bu(k)+d

where k is the current time step, A_(x)(k) is the state space for the current time step, x(k+1) is the state space of the next time step, Bu(k) is the new inputs to the zone, and d is a disturbance to the zone. In some embodiments, the disturbance d indicates an effect on environmental conditions in the zone not due to outputs of assets. For example, heat emitted by people and electronics may cause a disturbance in a temperature of the zone. Likewise, air contaminants (e.g., PM2.5, PM10, etc.) entering through an open window in the zone may cause a disturbance in values of said contaminants.

In some embodiments, a model of zone models 2404 facilitates model predictive control by describing how the temperature of building air and mass changes as the building is heated (or cooled). In some embodiments, the model describing these two temperatures is given by:

${\overset{.}{T}}_{z} = {{\left( {\frac{- 1}{R_{im}C_{a}} - \frac{1}{R_{oa}C_{a_{z}}}} \right)T_{z}} + {\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{a}}T_{m}} + {\frac{1}{R_{oa}C_{a}}T_{oa}} + {\frac{1}{C_{a}}{\overset{.}{Q}}_{HVAC}} + {\frac{1}{C_{a}}{\overset{.}{Q}}_{Other}}}$ $\mspace{76mu}{{\overset{.}{T}}_{m} = {{\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{m}}T_{z}} - {\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{m}}T_{m}}}}$

where {dot over (T)}_(z) is a rate of change of temperature in a zone, R_(im) is a mass thermal resistance value of a resistor (e.g., a wall, a door, etc.), C_(a) is an capacitance value of air, T_(z) is a temperature in the zone, T_(oa) is an outdoor air temperature, Q_(HVAC) is an amount of heat contributed by a heat, ventilation, or air conditioning (HVAC) system, {dot over (Q)}_(other) is a heat transfer value, {dot over (T)}_(m) is a rate of change in a building mass temperature, C_(m) is a mass thermal capacitance value, and T_(m) is a building mass temperature. By using the model, asset allocator 402 can capture the dynamic nature of a zone (or any space) of a building.

If a goal is to maintain comfort in regards to temperature and humidity as well as contaminates (e.g., PM2.5, PM10, etc.) in the air, the above model can be augmented with equations describing the additional states as follows:

${\overset{.}{T}}_{z} = {{\left( {\frac{- 1}{R_{im}C_{a}} - \frac{1}{R_{oa}C_{a_{z}}}} \right)T_{z}} + {\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{a}}T_{m}} + {\frac{1}{R_{oa}C_{a}}T_{oa}} + {\frac{1}{C_{a}}{\overset{.}{Q}}_{HVAC}} + {\frac{1}{C_{a}}{\overset{.}{Q}}_{Other}} + {\overset{.}{\overset{\sim}{v}}\left( {T_{oa} - T_{z}} \right)}}$ $\mspace{76mu}{{\overset{.}{T}}_{m} = {{\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{m}}T_{z}} - {\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{m}}T_{m}}}}$ ${\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{in}} = {{\overset{.}{\overset{\sim}{v}}\left( {\varphi_{{H\; 2O},{out}} - \varphi_{{H\; 2O},{in}}} \right)} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{dist}} - {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{hvac}} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{control}}}$                     ⋮ $\mspace{76mu}{{\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{X,{in}} = {{\overset{.}{\overset{\sim}{v}}\left( {\varphi_{X,{out}} - \varphi_{X,{in}}} \right)} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{X,{dist}} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{X,{control}}}}$

where {dot over (φ)}_(H2O,in) is a rate of change in a concentration of water in the air,

is an airflow normalized by a volume of air in a space (e.g., a zone), φ_(X,out) is a concentration of water in the air outside of the space (e.g., in the outdoors), φ_(X,in) is a concentration of water in the air inside the space, {dot over (φ)}_(H2O,dist) is a disturbance rate of water in the space, {dot over (φ)}_(H2O,hvac) is a rate of change of water in the air due to HVAC equipment operation, and {dot over (φ)}_(H2O,control) is a rate of change of water in the air due to control decisions, {dot over (φ)}_(X,in) is a rate of change in a concentration of a contaminant in the air, φ_(X,out) is a concentration of the contaminant in the air outside of the space, φ_(X,in) is a concentration of contaminant in the air inside the space, {dot over (φ)}_(X,dist) is a disturbance rate of the contaminant in the space, {dot over (φ)}_(X,control) is a rate of change of the contaminant in the air due to control decisions, and all other variables are the same as described above. In general, the model can be augmented with as additional contaminants as necessary for the optimization problem.

To fit the above equations into a framework used by asset allocator 402, the equations can be modified to the following form:

${\overset{.}{T}}_{z} = {{\left( {\frac{- 1}{R_{im}C_{a}} - \frac{1}{R_{oa}C_{a}}} \right)T_{z}} + {\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{a}}T_{m}} + {\frac{1}{R_{oa}C_{a}}T_{oa}} + {\frac{1}{C_{a}}{\overset{.}{Q}}_{HVAC}} + {\frac{1}{C_{a}}{\overset{.}{Q}}_{Other}} + {\overset{.}{Q}}_{econ}}$ $\mspace{76mu}{{\overset{.}{T}}_{m} = {{\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{m}}T_{z}} - {\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{m}}T_{m}}}}$ $\mspace{76mu}{{\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{in}} = {{\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{econ}} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{dist}} - {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{hvac}} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{{H\; 2O},{control}}}}$                       ⋮ $\mspace{76mu}{{\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{X,{in}} = {{\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{X,{econ}} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{X,{dist}} + {\overset{.}{\varphi}}_{X,{control}}}}$

where the econ subscript illustrates inputs from an economizer or a ventilator, and the control subscript illustrates another device that can perform control (e.g., a humidifier or a separate filter). Using the asset allocator format, this configuration is described for a variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system as described below with reference to FIG. 25 and for an air handling unit (AHU) system described below with reference to FIG. 26. In the equations and FIGS. 25-26, the economizer (i.e., ventilator control points) and the additional control points are capable of taking on both negative and positive values. As such, terms may have to be split into both negative and positive components to allow assets to produce both negative and positive values. In some embodiments, using this form, an identification model for a zone group is not required to change as no additional parameters are added to the dynamic equations as the additional parameters are moved to static models of the economizer or the ventilator. This formulation can allow the complication to be moved out of the dynamics and into the asset models. In fact, the number of parameters that must be identified in the zone group model may remain the same:

$\frac{1}{R_{oa}C_{a}},\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{a}},\frac{1}{C_{a}},{\frac{1}{R_{im}C_{m}}.}$

All the additional elements of the state-space matrix may become 1 or 0. The difficulty can be placed in the models of the assets themselves (the models of the ventilator, the purifier, etc.).

It should be noted that when using volume concentrations with the above equations for determining rate of changes for environmental conditions, the equations are not exact as no mass balance is implied. However, given a density of air inside is generally less than 1% different than outside and the density of air changes by less than 5% in a given day, volume balance may be used with negligible error.

Using zone models 2404, asset allocator 402 can incorporate how environmental conditions in a zone will be affected due to operation of assets and other factors leading to disturbances when solving an optimization problem. In particular, zone models 2404 can indicate to asset allocator 402 how various environmental conditions will be affected to determine whether or not occupant comfort is maintained. In some embodiments, models are generated to describe how individual environmental conditions change as a function of operation of ventilators and/or other building equipment. Without utilizing zone models 2404, asset allocator 402 may be constrained to making decisions based on a static model of a zone (e.g., the zone has no interaction with the surrounding environment). Using the static model of zones may result in control decisions that do not maintain occupant comfort due to not accounting for dynamic nature of zones.

Environmental Control System Resource Diagrams

Referring now to FIG. 25, a block diagram of resource diagram 2500 affecting various environmental conditions in a zone group is shown. In resource diagram 2500, a water supplier 2502 is shown to provide water resource 2516 to a humidifier 2508. Likewise, an electricity supplier 2504 is shown to provide electricity resource 2518 to a variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system 2506, humidifier 2508, a ventilator 2510, and a purifier 2512. Water supplier 2502 and electricity supplier 2504 may be any utility supplier capable of providing water resource 2516 and electricity resource 2518 to resource diagram 2500 respectively. In some embodiments, water supplier 2502 and/or electricity supplier 2504 are a part of a building controlled by resource diagram 2500. For example, electricity supplier 2504 may be an array of solar panels configured to provide electricity resource 2518 for the building. In some embodiments, water supplier 2502 and/or electricity supplier 2504 are utility suppliers separate from the building controlled by resource diagram 2500. If water supplier 2502 and/or electricity supplier 2504 are separate from the building, resource diagram 2500 may be required to purchase water resource 2516 and/or electricity resource 2518 from water supplier 2502 and/or electricity supplier 2504 respectively.

In some embodiments, water supplier 2502 and electricity supplier 2504 are defined by models of source models 934 described with reference to FIG. 24. In some embodiments, water supplier 2502 and electricity supplier 2504 are treated by asset allocator 402 as sources that provide resources at a cost (e.g., in dollars per kW of electricity). In some embodiments, water supplier 2502 is similar to and/or the same as water utility 504 described with reference to FIGS. 5A-5B. In some embodiments, electricity supplier 2504 is similar to and/or the same as electric utility 552 described with reference to FIGS. 5A-5B. As such, water supplier 2502 and electricity supplier 2504 may be treated similarly to water utility 504 and electric utility 552 by asset allocator 402.

In some embodiments VRF system 2506, humidifier 2508, ventilator 2510, and purifier 2512 are modeled as subplants. As such, each of VRF system 2506, humidifier 2508, ventilator 2510, and purifier 2512 may have an associated model of subplant models 936.

VRF system 2506 of resource diagram 2500 is shown to intake (e.g., consume) electricity resource 2518 and provide heat resource 2520 to a zone group 2514. In some embodiments, zone group 2514 is or includes multiple zones of a building (e.g., building 10). In some embodiments, zone group 2514 includes only one zone of the building. In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 can treat various zones of zone group 2514 as a single zone. By treating zones of zone group 2514 as a single zone, an amount of processing required to maintain occupant comfort across zone group 2514 can be lessened. VRF system 2506 may include, for example, one or more outdoor units (ODUs), one or more indoor units (IDUs), or any other VRF device capable of affecting a temperature, humidity, or other environmental conditions in zone group 2514. In general, the heat resource 2520 produced by VRF system 2506 can increase or decrease the temperature in zone group 2514.

Resource diagram 2500 is also shown to include humidifier 2508 that intakes (e.g., consumes) both electricity resource 2518 and water resource 2516 and provides (e.g., produces) water vapor resource 2522 (e.g., thereby increasing humidity) to zone group 2514. In some embodiments, humidifier 2508 removes water vapor resource 2522 (i.e., decreases humidity) from zone group 2514. In some embodiments, if humidifier 2508 removes water vapor resource 2522 from zone group 2514 (e.g., thereby decreasing humidity of zone group 2514) the removed water vapor is treated as a negative resource by asset allocator 402.

Resource diagram 2500 is also shown to include ventilator 2510. Ventilator 2510 is shown to intake (e.g., consume) electricity resource 2518 and affect heat resource 2520, water vapor resource 2522, carbon dioxide resource 2524, and contaminant X resource 2526 in zone group 2514. Particularly, contaminant X resource 2526 may be any one or more contaminants (e.g., PM2.5, PM10, etc.) that can affect air quality in zone group 2514.

Resource diagram 2500 is also shown to include purifier 2512. Purifier 2512 is shown to intake (e.g., consume) electricity resource 2518 and affect contaminant X resource 2526 in zone group 2514. Similar to ventilator 2510, purifier 2512 may be able to affect any one or more contaminants in zone group 2514. In some embodiments, purifier 2512 is treated by asset allocator 402 as a subplant that consumes some amount of electrical energy resource and produces a negative quantity of contaminant X resource 2526 in zone group 2514 (e.g., removes the quantity of contaminant X resource 2526 from zone group 2514). Throughout the present disclosure, various building devices are described as providing a particular resource or multiple resources to a building zone. However, it should be understood that “providing” does not necessarily require the building device to add a positive amount of that resource to the building zone. For example, a building device can “provide” a negative amount of a resource to a building zone by removing an amount of that resource from the building zone (e.g., purifier 2512 provides a negative amount of contaminant X resource 2526 to zone group 2514). Accordingly, any references to providing a resource should be interpreted as either adding an amount of the resource or removing an amount of the resource.

Resource diagram 2500 is also shown to include outside air 2528. Outside air 2528 can introduce outside air to zone group 2514 (e.g., via an open window) to affect a temperature of zone group 2514. In some embodiments, outside air 2528 affects other environmental conditions within zone group 2514 such as humidity or air quality. Outside air 2528 can also be utilized by ventilator 2510 to affect any of resources 2520-2526. For example, ventilator 2510 may utilize outside air 2528 to affect heat resource 2520 and water vapor resource 2522. Outside air 2528 is shown as a dashed line in resource diagram 2500 as, depending on implementation, outside air 2528 may or may not affect zone group 2514 and/or ventilator 2510.

Resource diagram 2500 is also shown to include disturbances D affecting each of resources 2520-2526. A disturbance to a resource of resources 2520-2526 can affect how the resource impacts an environmental condition of zone group 2514 and/or a device of devices 2506-2512. For example, a heat disturbance can affect heat resource 2520, thereby affecting a temperature of zone group 2514 and operation of VRF system 2506. The heat disturbance can by caused by, for example, body heat released by people, heat released by electronic equipment, or solar radiation. As another example, carbon dioxide resource 2524 can be affected by a carbon dioxide disturbance due to a gas leak. In some embodiments, disturbances are included in the zone models described above with reference to FIG. 24. If disturbances are included in the zone models, the zone models can inherently account for leakage, internal generation, etc. of resources and how environmental conditions are affected due to the disturbances.

Resource diagram 2500 illustrates how individual devices can affect multiple environmental conditions. Further, resource diagram 2500 illustrates how individual devices can affect the same environmental condition(s) as other devices. Therefore, to properly solve the optimization problem generated by asset allocator 402, each device may need to be considered in relation to every other device and what environmental conditions each device affects. Asset allocator 402 can use resource diagram 2500 to identify interconnections between various sources (e.g., water supplier 2502 or electricity supplier 2504), resources (e.g., water resource 2516, heat resource 2520, carbon dioxide resource 2524, etc.), subplants/assets (e.g., VRF system 2506, humidifier 2508, ventilator 2510, and purifier 2512). Based on the interconnections between various components of resource diagram 2500, asset allocator can determine how to affect an environmental condition of a space (e.g., a zone of zone group 2514) while optimizing (e.g., reducing) costs. For example, if a temperature of a zone of zone group 2514 should be raised to maintain occupant comfort, asset allocator 402 may need to determine whether to operate VRF system 2506 or ventilator 2510. If asset allocator 402 determines that it is more cost effective to operate ventilator 2510 than VRF system 2506, asset allocator 402 may still determine how ventilator 2510 affects other environmental conditions and determine if other devices require operation as a result. As such, additional variables may be necessary in the optimization problem to optimize costs while maintaining occupant comfort for all environmental conditions.

In particular, during an optimization process, asset allocator 402 can determine how ventilator 2510 should be operated to maintain desired environmental conditions as ventilator 2510 can affect all of resources 2520-2526. As such, asset allocator 402 may determine if operation of ventilator 2510 can satisfy all required adjustments to environmental conditions as operation of a single device (e.g., ventilator 2510) may be less expensive than operation of multiple devices. However, operation of ventilator 2510 to affect one environmental condition may negatively impact a separate environmental condition. For example, ventilator 2510 may utilize outdoor air 2528 to cool zone group 2514, but said utilization may introduce additional pollutants, thereby negatively affecting contaminant X resource 2526. As such, operation of ventilator 2510 to cool zone group 2514 may reduce/eliminate a need to operate VRF system 2506, but may result in additional operation required for purifier 2512 in order to improve air quality in zone group 2514. In general, asset allocator 402 can determine a cost effective solution that ensures each environmental condition of zone group 2514 does not violate any environmental condition constraints. In some embodiments, asset allocator 402 performs a cost benefit analysis of operating each component of building equipment to determine what components should be operated in order to optimize (e.g., reduce) costs related to ensuring environmental conditions do not violate any environmental condition constraints. In this way, asset allocator 402 can determine whether operation of ventilator 2510 reduces overall costs by reducing a need for operation of other devices, or if operation of other devices to affect resources 2520-2526 individually is more cost effective.

During an optimization process, asset allocator 402 may account for disturbances affecting some and/or all of resources 2520-2526. Disturbances can significantly impact environmental conditions of zone group 2514 and can thereby affect how devices 2506-2512 should be operated in order to maintain comfortable conditions. For example, humidity released by people breathing may impact water vapor resource 2522. As such, if a humidity level of zone group 2514 should be increased, humidifier 2508 may not require as much operation as the humidity level may naturally increase due to water vapor released from people breathing. As another example, a heat disturbance due to heat released by electronic equipment (e.g., computers, phones, televisions, etc.) may introduce additional heat to heat resource 2520, thereby increasing a temperature of zone group 2514. As such, if a temperature of zone group 2514 should be decreased, VRF system 2506 may require additional operation to mitigate effects of the heat disturbance. Therefore, asset allocator 402 may be required to account for disturbances affecting any/all of resources 2520-2526 to determine an optimized control schedule for operating building equipment such that environmental conditions of zone group 2514 do not violate any environmental condition constraints.

Referring now to FIG. 26, a block diagram of a resource diagram 2600 affecting various environmental conditions in a zone group is shown. In some embodiments, resource diagram 2600 is similar to resource diagram 2500 described with reference to FIG. 25. Resource diagram 2600 illustrates how additional utilities, devices, etc. can affect environmental conditions in zone group 2514. In resource diagram 2600, the optimization problem solved by asset allocator 402 may account for each device and how each device affects various environmental conditions to determine an optimal (or near-optimal) solution to the optimization problem (e.g., a solution that minimizes a cost function).

In some embodiments, resource diagram 2600 includes various sources that can have associated source models in source models 934. In addition to water supplier 2502 and electricity supplier 2504, resource diagram 2600 is also shown to include a natural gas supplier 2602. Each supplier is shown to provide (e.g., supply) resources in resource diagram 2600 to other various components. For example, natural gas supplier 2602 provides a natural gas resource 2612 to hot water generators 2610. As such, asset allocator 402 can account for how each supplier/source provides a resource at a particular cost (e.g., $ per gallon of water) in resource diagram 2600 and plan accordingly.

In some embodiments, resource diagram 2600 includes various assets that can have associated asset models of asset models 2402. Particularly, resource diagram 2600 is shown to include chillers 2606, heat recovery chillers 2608, hot water generators 2610, heat exchanger 2616, air handling unit (AHU) and economizer 2618, humidifier 2508, and purifier 2512. Each asset can have an associated asset model to which asset allocator 402 can determine what resource(s) each asset consumer and produces when solving an optimization problem. For example, AHU and economizer 2618 is shown to produce heat resource 2520, water vapor resource 2522, carbon dioxide resource 2524, and contaminant X resource 2526 while humidifier 2508 is shown to only produce water vapor resource 2522. Based on additional information regarding each asset (e.g., a rate at which an asset converts input resources to output resources), asset allocator 402 can determine particular assets to operate to affect environmental conditions to maintain occupant comfort.

In some embodiments, resource diagram 2600 includes various storage mediums for storing resources. In some embodiments, each storage medium can be modeled by a model of storage models 938. Particularly, resource diagram 2600 is shown to include thermal storage 2614, electricity storage 2626, towers 2604, and chilled water storage 2620. For each storage medium, asset allocator 402 can allocate various resources to be stored in said mediums for later consumption. For example, asset allocator 402 may store some electricity of electricity resource in electricity storage 2626 (e.g., a battery). Therefore, asset allocator 402 can withdraw resources from said storage mediums as needed. For example, during a peak demand period, water may be expensive so asset allocator 402 may withdraw water from towers 2604 to utilize instead of being charged at an increased rate by water supplier 2502. Each storage model of storage models 938 can allow asset allocator 402 to determine information such as, for example, how much of a resource the storage medium can store, at what rate resources can be stored/withdrawn, etc.

In some embodiments, resource diagram 2600 also includes various resources that are supplied by sources and/or assets and consumed by storage mediums and/or sinks. Particularly, resource diagram 2600 is shown to include water resource 2516, electricity resource 2518, a natural gas resource 2612, a chilled water resource 2622, a hot water resource 2624, and resources 2520-2526 described above. As shown in resource diagram 2600, disturbances can affect some and/or all of resources 2520-2526. It should be appreciated that the disturbances affecting resources 2520-2526 may originate from various disturbance sources, and therefore lines connecting the disturbances to resources 2520-2526 as shown in resource diagram 2600 may not follow associations of lines shown in the key of FIG. 26 (e.g., the disturbances may not be due to electricity as would otherwise be interpreted based on a solid line shown in the key). Resource diagram 2600 can be utilized by asset allocator 402 to determine what resources each device/component requires and any resources produced by each device/component. As such, asset allocator can utilize each resource when determining how to best operate devices/components to affect a change on a condition of zone group 2514.

Bilinear Mapping Graphs

Referring now to FIGS. 27A-27B, graphs 2700 and 2750 illustrating three-dimensional bilinear mappings that can be used by a mixed integer linear program (MILP) to determine environmental condition constraints are shown, according to some embodiments. The bilinear mapping illustrated by graph 2750 is the same bilinear mapping illustrated by graph 2700 with courser resolution. The bilinear mapping shown by graphs 2700 and 2750 has 8 convex regions. In some embodiments, the 8 convex regions are represented by three binary variables using the DLog [XXX] representation as described with reference to FIG. 12. Based on the generated convex regions, the constraints may be constructed from the vertices of the convex regions and used as described with reference to FIGS. 12 and 14, according to some embodiments.

For example, graphs 2700 and 2750 may be generated based on a ventilator model used by asset allocator 402. The ventilator model has several bilinear terms. In each case, an indoor concentration is multiplied by a normalized volumetric flow of the ventilator (air changes per hour with outside air). Because both of these are decision variables, the resulting model is nonlinear and must be treated appropriately so that it can be solved within the framework of an MILP. Therefore, the resulting model can be augmented as graphs 2700 and 2750 such that the resulting model can be solved within the framework of the MILP.

In some embodiments, the nonlinearity is moved out of the resulting model (i.e., a dynamic system model) and into an asset model of asset models 2402. However, it is still necessary to determine a mapping between a control variable and a normalized air exchange with the outdoors, V. For example, a ventilator may have a simple on/off or an off/low/high setting. In this case, it may be necessary to learn that low corresponds to 5 air changes per hour and high corresponds to 10 air changes per hour. In a direct digital control (DDC) controlled economizer it may be possible to directly specify the amount of amount of air flow to bring in from the outside. However, even with said ability to control a mapping is still required. In this case, the mapping is simply the normalization term, or the total volume of the air in the zone. For example, if the air rate is 2000 cfm it is still necessary to know that the total air volume is 20,000 ft³ to calculate the air changes per hour.

$\overset{.}{\overset{\sim}{v}} = {\frac{2000\frac{{ft}^{3}}{\min}*\frac{60\mspace{14mu}\min}{1\mspace{14mu}{hr}}}{20000\mspace{14mu}{ft}^{3}} = 6}$

Because the mapping is static, it can be determined using regression analysis. If each of the contaminants, water vapor, and temperature can be monitored, then it can be straight forward to set up several regression equations that utilize the change in concentration or temperature over an hour while the ventilator is in a given state.

Psychometric Chart of Occupant Comfort

Referring now to FIG. 28, a psychometric chart 2800 illustrating a comfort zone 2802 based on humidity and temperature is shown. Comfort zone 2802 of psychometric chart 2800 illustrates a balance between temperature and humidity where an occupant may typically be comfortable in a space (e.g., a zone of building 10). For example, occupant comfort is shown to be maintained if a temperature in the space is 75° F. with a humidity value of 40%, but occupant comfort is not maintained if the temperature in the space is 75° F. with a humidity value of 20%. Based on comfort zone 2802, various environmental condition constraints can be generated to indicate values of environmental conditions where occupants are comfortable. In some embodiments, psychometric chart 2800 includes additional environmental conditions such as PM2.5 and adjusts comfort zone 2802 to reflect conditions where an occupant is comfortable. In general, psychometric chart 2800 can be utilized to determine environmental condition constraints for use in solving an optimization problem.

Generating Control Signals to Affect Environmental Conditions

Referring now to FIG. 29, a process 2900 for operating building equipment to maintain occupant comfort in a zone for multiple environmental conditions is shown, according to some embodiments. In the zone, maintaining occupant comfort across multiple environmental conditions (e.g., air quality, temperature, relative humidity, etc.) may be necessary. In some embodiments, building equipment (i.e., assets) of the zone affect multiple environmental conditions upon operation. As such, for occupant comfort to be maintained while optimizing (e.g., reducing) costs, interactions between each asset and the various environmental conditions in addition to dynamics of the zone should be considered. In some embodiments, some and/or all steps of process 2900 are performed by components of environmental control system 2200 described with reference to FIG. 22.

Process 2900 is shown to include collecting environmental data by environmental sensors (step 2902), according to some embodiments. The environmental data collected by the environmental sensors can described various environmental conditions in a zone. For example, the environmental data may include information regarding PM2.5 concentration in the air, carbon dioxide concentration in the air, a temperature, a relative humidity level, etc. In some embodiments, step 2902 is performed by sensors 2212-2222 and/or other sensors of thermostat 2224.

Process 2900 is shown to include receiving the environmental data from the environmental sensors (step 2904), according to some embodiments. In some embodiments, the environmental data is received continuously from the environmental sensors as the environmental data is gathered. In some embodiments, the environmental data is received occasionally after a predetermined time period and/or after a certain amount of environmental data is gathered. In some embodiments, step 2904 is performed by comfort controller 2202.

Process 2900 is shown to include determining current environmental conditions in a zone of a building based on the environmental data (step 2906), according to some embodiments. As the environmental data received from each environmental sensor may only indicate current conditions of a particular environmental condition, it may be necessary to determine an overall state of environmental conditions in the zone. The current environmental conditions can be used to solve an optimization problem. In some embodiments, step 2906 is performed by data collector 2310 and/or comfort model generator 2312.

Process 2900 is shown to include generating a model describing occupant comfort in the zone based on environmental conditions (step 2908), according to some embodiments. The comfort model can be determined based on information gathered regarding how occupants respond to various environmental conditions. For example, users may be polled to determine whether they are comfortable based on current environmental conditions. As another example, occupants may be determined to be uncomfortable if the occupants make adjustments to setpoints in the zone (e.g., increasing a temperature, decreasing humidity, etc.). Based on the preferences of occupants, the comfort model can illustrate how occupants may react to certain environmental conditions. For example, the comfort model may indicate occupants are comfortable if relative humidity in the zone is 45% and temperature in the zone is 72° F., but the occupants are not comfortable if the relative humidity in the zone is 50% and the temperature in the zone is 70° F. In some embodiments, the comfort model also indicates occupant comfort based on contaminant concentrations in the air. In general, the comfort model can indicate occupant comfort for any environmental conditions in the zone that may affect occupant comfort. In some embodiments, the comfort model additionally indicates relationships between building devices. In this case, step 2908 may include identifying said relationships and integrating the relationships with the comfort model. In some embodiments, the relationships may be separately identified for later use in process 2900. In some embodiments, step 2908 is performed by comfort model generator 2312.

Process 2900 is shown to include generating environmental condition constraints for maintaining occupant comfort in the zone based on the comfort model (step 2910), according to some embodiments. The environmental condition constraints place limits on permissible values of environmental conditions. Some environmental conditions may only have an upper bound as no lower bound may be necessary. For example, concentration of PM2.5 in the air may only require an upper bound as occupants are not uncomfortable if there is little or no concentration of PM2.5 in the air. However, some environmental conditions may require an upper bound and a lower bound to ensure occupant comfort. For example, relative humidity and temperature may both have a range of values that maintain occupant comfort such that values above or below the range are uncomfortable for occupants. In some embodiments, the environmental condition constraints are indicated explicitly by the comfort model and can be directly extracted. In some embodiments, combinations of environmental conditions are tested with the comfort model and the environmental condition constraints are determined based on results of the tests. The results of the tests can include various information indicating how occupants reacted to the tests such as, for example, occupant votes regarding comfort, a number of setpoint adjustments that occurred during the tests indicating occupant discomfort, etc. If the environmental condition constraints are determined based on tests run against the comfort model, the environmental condition constraints may be approximations of comfort that maintain occupant comfort. In some embodiments, environmental condition constraints determined through tests may be determined conservatively such that the environmental condition constraints have a high probability to maintain occupant comfort, even if less conservative environmental condition constraints may still maintain occupant comfort. In some embodiments, the environmental condition constraints are generated without the comfort model by, for example, having an occupant indicate desired ranges of environmental conditions. In some embodiments, step 2910 is performed by constraint generator 2314.

Process 2900 is shown to include performing a cost optimization for operating building equipment over a time period based on the comfort model, the environmental condition constraints, and the current environmental conditions (step 2912), according to some embodiments. In some embodiments, the cost optimization is performed by solving an optimization problem (e.g., the objective function J). The cost optimization can indicate how building equipment should be operated as to maintain occupant comfort while reducing costs. The cost optimization can be constrained by the environmental condition constraints generated in step 2910. Due to the environmental condition constraints, the cost optimization may not be allowed to make decisions that jeopardize occupant comfort by allowing an environmental condition to be outside the environmental condition's associated constraints. Further, the cost optimization should be performed respective to the current environmental conditions. For example, if all environmental conditions in the zone are currently comfortable and are predicted to stay comfortable for the time period, the cost optimization may determine not to operate any building equipment to reduce costs.

In some embodiments, the cost optimization includes consideration for some and/or all assets in the zone to determine how to ensure all pertinent environmental conditions are kept comfortable for the time period. In other words, step 2912 may include accounting for identified relationships between assets/building devices. As some assets may control more than one environmental condition, the cost optimization may consider how other environmental conditions are affected as a result of operating certain building equipment to affect individual environmental conditions. As such, the cost optimization problem may not be able to consider each environmental condition individually. Instead, the cost optimization may need to consider how purposely affecting one environmental condition may indirectly affect other environmental conditions. The cost optimization may also ensure that occupant comfort is not jeopardized due to a time lag in how quickly building equipment can be operated to affect environmental conditions. A time lag may indicate an amount of time required to adjust an environmental condition by operating a building device after receiving a control signal. For example, an air conditioner may require five minutes to reach a normal operating level. During the amount of time before normal operation is reached, the air conditioner may not affect environmental conditions (e.g., temperature) of the zone as the air conditioner does at a normal operating level. As such, the cost optimization can consider an amount of time required to properly operate building equipment, such that occupant comfort is maintained throughout the amount of time and beyond. In some embodiments, step 2912 is performed by asset allocator 402.

Process 2900 is shown to include generating control signals for the building equipment based on the cost optimization (step 2914), according to some embodiments. As the cost optimization can detail decisions of what building equipment should be operated at particular times during the time period, control signals can be generated to match said decisions. In some embodiments, the control signals are generated based on setpoints indicated by the cost optimization. For example, if a temperature setpoint for the zone is 73° F. and a current temperature is 70° F., a control signal may be generated to operate a heater to raise the current temperature in the zone to the temperature setpoint. In some embodiments, step 2914 is performed by BMS 606.

Process 2900 is shown to include operating building equipment based on the generated control signals to affect environmental conditions of the zone (step 2916), according to some embodiments. Due to operation of the building equipment, environmental conditions of the zone may change as to ensure occupant comfort while optimizing costs. In some embodiments, step 2916 is performed by building equipment 2208.

Other Environmental Control System Implementations

Referring generally to FIGS. 30 and 31, alternative implementations of the environmental control system described throughout FIGS. 22-29 are shown, according to some embodiments. In particular, FIG. 30 illustrates how model predictive control (i.e., solving an optimization problem as described throughout FIGS. 22-29) can be implemented in a cloud computing system whereas FIG. 31 illustrates how model predictive control can be implemented by a smart thermostat. It should be appreciated that the alternate system structures described below are provided for sake of example and are not meant to be limiting on the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the cloud computing system and smart thermostat systems for implementing MPC are described in greater detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/625,830 filed Jun. 16, 2017 and in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/185,274 filed Nov. 9, 2018. The entireties of both of these patent applications are incorporated by reference herein.

Referring now to FIG. 30, an environmental control system 3000 with a cloud computing system 3002 is shown, according to some embodiments. In some embodiments, environmental control system 3000 is similar to and/or the same as environmental control system 2200 as described with reference to FIG. 22. Environmental control system 3000 is shown to include cloud computing system 3002, a communications network 3004, thermostat 2224, BMS 606, building equipment 2008, and conditioned space 2204.

Cloud computing system 3002 is shown to include comfort controller 2202. As such, cloud computing system 3002 may be able to perform MPC for conditioned space 2204 and can generate a control schedule for operating building equipment 2008. Specifically, the control schedule may include one or more setpoints for which building equipment 2008 can be operated based on. MPC may be performed by cloud computing system 3002 to reduce computational load on local computing devices (e.g., devices local to a building including conditioned space 2204). In particular, moving functionality of comfort controller 2202 to be performed by cloud computing system 3002 can reduce a need for users (e.g., building owners) to purchase computing devices/systems for maintaining comfortable environmental conditions in conditioned space 2204 and/or elsewhere in a building.

Cloud computing system 3002 can be operated by any cloud provider that can provide MPC functionality for conditioned space 2204 and/or other spaces. In some embodiments, cloud computing system 3002 may perform MPC for some and/or all of a building, a campus including multiple buildings, etc. By utilizing cloud computing system 3002, MPC can more easily be applied to a larger number of spaces of a building, of a campus, etc. Moreover, cloud computing system 3002 may include more processing components such that calculations (e.g., optimizations) associated with MPC can be shorter amounts of time and in finer detail such that more accurate control decisions can be generated.

As a result of including comfort controller 2202, cloud computing system 3002 can generate and provide a control schedule to thermostat 2224 via network 3004. Network 3004 may be any type of communications network that can transmit data between components of environmental control system 3000. For example, network 3004 may be or include the Internet, a cellular network, Wi-Fi, Wi-Max, a proprietary communications network, or any other type of wired or wireless network. In environmental control system 3000, thermostat 2224 can be considered a networked device that is configured to send and receive information via network 3004. It should be appreciated that other networked devices may be used separately and/or in addition to thermostat 2224. For example, a user device (e.g., a smart phone, a laptop, a desktop computer), a local controller, a building computing system, etc. may be used to receive control schedules and provide zone conditions to cloud computing system 3002 via network 3004.

In response to receiving a control schedule from network 3004, thermostat 2224 can provide the control schedule to BMS 606 such that building equipment 2008 can be operated to affect some variable state or condition (e.g., temperature) of conditioned space 2204. In the example of FIG. 30, thermostat 2224 may effectively operate as a pass-through for control schedules. In other words, thermostat 2224 may not perform any data processing operations on the control schedules and instead may directly provide the control schedules to BMS 606. In some embodiments, the control schedules may be directed provided from cloud computing system 3002 to BMS 606 via network 3004. In this case, thermostat 2224 may or may not receive the control schedules. In some embodiments, thermostat 2224 includes functionality to generate and provide control signals to building equipment 2008 based on the control schedule. In this case, thermostat 2224 may include an equipment controller that can extract control information from the control schedule and generate control signals respective of the control schedule. In other words, thermostat 2224 may identify information such as setpoints from the control schedule and generate control signals for the building equipment and/or directly provide the setpoints to building equipment 2008. Thermostat 2224 may provide the control signals directly to building equipment 2008 and/or may provide the control signals to BMS 606 such that BMS 606 can operate building equipment 2008.

Based on the control schedule and/or the control signals, building equipment 2008 can be operated to affect variables states or conditions of conditioned space 2204. For example, as shown in FIG. 30, conditioned space 2204 may be affected by a temperature change of HVAC equipment {dot over (Q)}_(HVAC) as a result of operating building equipment 2008. Of course, building equipment 2008 may affect different conditions separately and/or in addition to temperature such as, for example, humidity, air quality, luminosity, etc. depending on what equipment is included in building equipment 2008. Conditioned space 2204 is also shown to receive a heat disturbance {dot over (Q)}_(other) from an external source. Q_(other) may be caused by for example, solar irradiance, outdoor air affecting conditioned space 2204, heat generated due to operating building equipment 2008 and/or other equipment in a building, heat emitted from occupants of conditioned space 2204, etc. As should be appreciated, Q_(other) is given as an example of external factors that may affect conditioned space 2204. Conditioned space 2204 may be affected by humidity disturbances, air quality disturbances, etc. from external sources.

Thermostat 2224 can measure environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, air quality, luminosity, etc.) of conditioned space 2204 and provide values of the environmental conditions to cloud computing system 3002. To properly perform MPC, cloud computing system 3002 may require measurements of the environmental conditions such that cloud computing system 3002 can adjust control schedules provided to thermostat 2224 to ensure appropriate values (e.g., values are within a predefined range) of the environmental conditions are maintained in conditioned space 2204. The environmental conditions provided to cloud computing system 3002 may also include measurements of other conditions such as outdoor temperatures, outdoor humidity, outdoor air quality, etc. In this way, cloud computing system 3002 can continually/periodically revise the control schedule to account for changes in conditions.

Referring now to FIG. 31, an environmental control system 3100 with a smart thermostat is shown, according to some embodiments. In some embodiments, environmental control system 3100 is similar to and/or the same as environmental control system 2200 and/or environmental control system 3000 as described with reference to FIGS. 22 and 30, respectively. In the embodiment of FIG. 31, thermostat 2224 may be considered a smart thermostat. In other words, thermostat 2224 may include some and/or all of the functionality of comfort controller 2202 such that thermostat 2224 can perform MPC for conditioned space 2204. In this way, thermostat 2224 can determine the setpoints for which building equipment 2008 can be operated based on. In this way, thermostat 2224 can dynamically adjust the control schedule (i.e., the setpoints) provided to BMS 606 and building equipment 2008.

Configuration of Exemplary Embodiments

Although the figures show a specific order of method steps, the order of the steps may differ from what is depicted. Also two or more steps can be performed concurrently or with partial concurrence. Such variation will depend on the software and hardware systems chosen and on designer choice. All such variations are within the scope of the disclosure. Likewise, software implementations could be accomplished with standard programming techniques with rule based logic and other logic to accomplish the various connection steps, calculation steps, processing steps, comparison steps, and decision steps.

The construction and arrangement of the systems and methods as shown in the various exemplary embodiments are illustrative only. Although only a few embodiments have been described in detail in this disclosure, many modifications are possible (e.g., variations in sizes, dimensions, structures, shapes and proportions of the various elements, values of parameters, mounting arrangements, use of materials, colors, orientations, etc.). For example, the position of elements can be reversed or otherwise varied and the nature or number of discrete elements or positions can be altered or varied. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present disclosure. The order or sequence of any process or method steps can be varied or re-sequenced according to alternative embodiments. Other substitutions, modifications, changes, and omissions can be made in the design, operating conditions and arrangement of the exemplary embodiments without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.

As used herein, the term “circuit” may include hardware structured to execute the functions described herein. In some embodiments, each respective “circuit” may include machine-readable media for configuring the hardware to execute the functions described herein. The circuit may be embodied as one or more circuitry components including, but not limited to, processing circuitry, network interfaces, peripheral devices, input devices, output devices, sensors, etc. In some embodiments, a circuit may take the form of one or more analog circuits, electronic circuits (e.g., integrated circuits (IC), discrete circuits, system on a chip (SOCs) circuits, etc.), telecommunication circuits, hybrid circuits, and any other type of “circuit.” In this regard, the “circuit” may include any type of component for accomplishing or facilitating achievement of the operations described herein. For example, a circuit as described herein may include one or more transistors, logic gates (e.g., NAND, AND, NOR, OR, XOR, NOT, XNOR, etc.), resistors, multiplexers, registers, capacitors, inductors, diodes, wiring, and so on).

The “circuit” may also include one or more processors communicably coupled to one or more memory or memory devices. In this regard, the one or more processors may execute instructions stored in the memory or may execute instructions otherwise accessible to the one or more processors. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be embodied in various ways. The one or more processors may be constructed in a manner sufficient to perform at least the operations described herein. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be shared by multiple circuits (e.g., circuit A and circuit B may comprise or otherwise share the same processor which, in some example embodiments, may execute instructions stored, or otherwise accessed, via different areas of memory). Alternatively or additionally, the one or more processors may be structured to perform or otherwise execute certain operations independent of one or more co-processors. In other example embodiments, two or more processors may be coupled via a bus to enable independent, parallel, pipelined, or multi-threaded instruction execution. Each processor may be implemented as one or more general-purpose processors, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), digital signal processors (DSPs), or other suitable electronic data processing components structured to execute instructions provided by memory. The one or more processors may take the form of a single core processor, multi-core processor (e.g., a dual core processor, triple core processor, quad core processor, etc.), microprocessor, etc. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be external to the apparatus, for example the one or more processors may be a remote processor (e.g., a cloud based processor). Alternatively or additionally, the one or more processors may be internal and/or local to the apparatus. In this regard, a given circuit or components thereof may be disposed locally (e.g., as part of a local server, a local computing system, etc.) or remotely (e.g., as part of a remote server such as a cloud based server). To that end, a “circuit” as described herein may include components that are distributed across one or more locations.

The present disclosure contemplates methods, systems and program products on any machine-readable media for accomplishing various operations. The embodiments of the present disclosure can be implemented using existing computer processors, or by a special purpose computer processor for an appropriate system, incorporated for this or another purpose, or by a hardwired system. Embodiments within the scope of the present disclosure include program products comprising machine-readable media for carrying or having machine-executable instructions or data structures stored thereon. Such machine-readable media can be any available media that can be accessed by a general purpose or special purpose computer or other machine with a processor. By way of example, such machine-readable media can comprise RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, CD-ROM or other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to carry or store desired program code in the form of machine-executable instructions or data structures and which can be accessed by a general purpose or special purpose computer or other machine with a processor. Combinations of the above are also included within the scope of machine-readable media. Machine-executable instructions include, for example, instructions and data which cause a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or special purpose processing machines to perform a certain function or group of functions. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An environmental control system, the system comprising: a first building device; a second building device; and a controller comprising a processing circuit configured to: perform an optimization to generate control decisions for the first building device and the second building device, the optimization performed subject to environmental condition constraints for a plurality of environmental conditions and using a predictive model that predicts a first effect of the control decisions on a first environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions and predict a second effect of the control decisions on a second environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions, wherein the first environmental condition and the second environmental condition comprise at least two of a temperature, a humidity, a particulate matter concentration, or a carbon dioxide concentration; and operate the first building device and the second building device in accordance with the control decisions to affect the plurality of environmental conditions of a zone; wherein: operating the first building device affects at least the first environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions; operating the second building device affects at least the second environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions, wherein the first environmental condition and the second environmental condition are different environmental conditions or the first building device affects more of the plurality of environmental conditions than the second building device; and performing the optimization coordinates operation of the first building device and the second building device such that the plurality of environmental conditions are maintained at setpoints or within predetermined ranges.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the plurality of environmental conditions comprise at least one of: the particulate matter concentration; or the carbon dioxide concentration.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the environmental condition constraints for the plurality of environmental conditions comprise at least one of an upper bound or a lower bound that indicate a maximum allowable value and a minimum allowable value of an associated environmental condition.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the first building device is a ventilator operable to affect the plurality of environmental conditions by providing an airflow to the zone of the building, the airflow containing a portion of outdoor air.
 5. The system of claim 1, wherein the predictive model comprising a zone model for the zone that: defines a first relationship between the first environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions and a first input provided to the zone by the first building device; and defines a second relationship between the second environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions, the first input provided to the zone by the first building device, and a second input provided to the zone by the second building device.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein: the optimization is performed based on a plurality of asset models describing the first building device and the second building device, each of the plurality of asset models indicating inputs and outputs of the first building device or the second building device; and the optimization is performed further based on a forecast of outdoor conditions that indicates environmental conditions of an external space.
 7. The system of claim 1, wherein: operating the first building device affects the plurality of environmental conditions; operating the second building device affects a subset of the plurality of environmental conditions; and performing the optimization coordinates operation of the first building device and the second building device such that the plurality of environmental conditions are maintained at setpoints or within predetermined ranges.
 8. A method for maintaining occupant comfort in a zone of a building, the method comprising: receiving measurements of a plurality of environmental conditions within the zone; performing an optimization to generate control decisions for a first building device a second building device, the optimization performed subject to environmental condition constraints for the plurality of environmental conditions and using a predictive model that predicts an effect of the control decisions on the plurality of environmental conditions; and providing the control decisions for the first building device and the second building device to operate the first building device and the second building device to affect the plurality of environmental conditions of the zone.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein: the optimization is performed based on a plurality of asset models describing the first building device and the second building device, each of the plurality of asset models indicating inputs and outputs of the first building device or the second building device; and the optimization is performed further based on a forecast of outdoor conditions that indicates environmental conditions of an external space.
 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the first building device is a ventilator operable to affect the plurality of environmental conditions by providing an airflow to the zone of the building, the airflow containing a portion of outdoor air.
 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the predictive model is a zone model for the zone that: defines a first relationship between a first environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions and a first input provided to the zone by the first building device; and defines a second relationship between a second environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions, the first input provided to the zone by the first building device, and a second input provided to the zone by the second building device.
 12. The method of claim 8, wherein the plurality of environmental conditions comprise at least one of: a temperature; a humidity; a particulate matter concentration; or a carbon dioxide concentration.
 13. The method claim 8, wherein the environmental condition constraints for the plurality of environmental conditions comprise at least one of an upper bound or a lower bound that indicate a maximum allowable value and a minimum allowable value of an associated environmental condition.
 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the control decisions are provided to a local control device, the local control device being a thermostat configured to measure the plurality of environmental conditions in the zone.
 15. A controller for maintaining occupant comfort in a zone of a building, the controller comprising: one or more processors; and one or more non-transitory computer-readable media storing instructions that, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform operations comprising: performing an optimization to generate control decisions for a ventilator and a second building device operable to independently affect a plurality of environmental conditions, the optimization performed subject to environmental condition constraints for the plurality of environmental conditions and using a predictive model that predicts an effect of the control decisions on the plurality of environmental conditions; and operating the ventilator and the second building device in accordance with the control decisions to affect the plurality of environmental conditions.
 16. The controller of claim 15, wherein the plurality of environmental conditions comprise at least one of: a temperature; a humidity; a particulate matter concentration; or a carbon dioxide concentration.
 17. The controller of claim 15, wherein the ventilator is operable to affect the plurality of environmental conditions by providing an airflow to the zone of the building, the airflow containing a portion of outdoor air.
 18. The controller of claim 15, wherein the predictive model is a zone model for the zone that: defines a first relationship between a first environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions and a first input provided to the zone by the ventilator; and defines a second relationship between a second environmental condition of the plurality of environmental conditions, the first input provided to the zone by the ventilator, and a second input provided to the zone by the second building device.
 19. The controller of claim 15, wherein: the optimization is performed based on a plurality of asset models describing the ventilator and the second building device, each of the plurality of asset models indicating inputs and outputs of the ventilator or the second building device; and the optimization is performed further based on a forecast of outdoor conditions that indicates environmental conditions of an external space.
 20. The controller of claim 15, wherein: operating the ventilator affects the plurality of environmental conditions; operating the second building device affects a subset of the plurality of environmental conditions; and performing the optimization coordinates operation of the ventilator and the second building device such that the plurality of environmental conditions are maintained at setpoints or within predetermined ranges. 